Chapter IX. Navarātra or Durgotsava

Volume V: Part I pp. 154–187

Chapter IX. Navarātra or Durgotsava

Navarātra or Durgotsava

From the 1st of Āśvina bright half to the 9th is celebrated the Durgāpūjā festival, otherwise called Navarātra, observed all over India in some form or other. Some of the works¹ provide that Durgotsava must be celebrated in both Śarad (Āśvina-śukla) and Vasanta (in Caitra-śukla). But it is the Durgotsava² of Āśvina that is celebrated in a grand style, particularly in Bengal, Bihar and Kāmarūpa.

If a person is unable to celebrate the festival³ for nine days, he should do so for three days beginning from the 7th tithi of Āśvina-śukla. In fact, the Tithitattva⁴ puts forward several alternative periods for Durgāpūjā as follows: (1) from the 9th tithi of the preceding dark half of Pūrṇimānta Āśvina to the 9th tithi of Āśvina-śukla; (2) from the first tithi of Āśvina śukla to 9th; (3) from the 6th to the 9th; (4) from the 7th to the 9th; (5) from the Mahāṣṭamī to the 9th, (6) only on the Mahāṣṭamī; (7) only on the Mahānavamī. Most of these alternatives find support in the Kālikā and other Purāṇaṣ There is a voluminous literature on Durgotsava. Every digest on vratas, tithis and pūjā devotes considerable space to this subject. Moreover, there are special treatises on Durgotsava such as the Durgotsavaviveka of Śūlapāṇi, the Durgāpūjā-prayogatattva (published by the Sanskrit Sahity Parishad, 1924) of which the Durgārcaṇapaddhati of Raghu- nandana (published by Jīvananda, vol. II) is a part, Durgābhakti- tarangiṇī of Vidyāpati,⁵ the Navarātra-pradīpa of Vināyaka alias Nanda-paṇḍita, the Durgotsavapaddhati by Udayasimha (2nd half of 15th century A. D.)⁶ Besides these, the Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa (chapters 78–90 in Venk. Press eḍ and 81–93 in Banerji’s) contains what is called Devīmāhātmya⁷ (or Saptaśatī or Caṇḍī) in which are described the appearance of Devī from the accumulated tejas of Viṣṇu, Śaṅkara, Agni and other gods, her getting different weapons from the several gods such as the trident from Śiva, discus from Viṣṇu, Vajra from Indra, her victory over and slaughter of the great demon Mahiṣāsura, and of the demons Caṇḍa and Muṇḍa, Śumbha and Niśumbha. The Kālikāpurāṇa, the Bṛhan-nandikeśvara-purāṇa⁸ and the Devīpurāṇa also devote considerable space to Durgā and her pūjā. I have used, though not much, the English work on Durgā-pūjā by Pratapacandra Ghosh published so far back as 1871. My endeavour will be to give as briefly as possible an account of all the salient features of this great reli-gious worship and festival from the Sanskrit texts themselveṣ

This pūjā is nitya as well as kāmya,⁹ it is the first because the Kālikāpurāṇa (63 12–13) prescribes that whoever, through laziness, hypocrisy, hatred or stupidity, does not celebrate the great festival of Durgā has all his desires frustrated by the angry Devī, it is also kāmya because rewards are promised when one celebrates Durgotsava 'all should always perform the worship of Devī in order to secure incomparable eminence which confers the puruṣārthas, viz. Dharma, Artha, Kāma and Mokṣa' and 'one should worship Bhavānī for pleasing her, for happiness in that year, for the destruction of evil spirits and goblins and for delight' (Tithitattva p. 65). The original purposes and objects of this festival were high and noble as stated in the Devī-purāṇa¹⁰ "This is a great and holy vrata conferring great siddhis, vanquishing all enemies, conferring benefits on all people, especially in great floods; this should be performed by brāhmaṇas for solemn sacrifices and by kṣatriyas for the protection of the people, by vaiśyas for cattle wealth, by śūdras desirous of sons and happiness, by women for blessed wifehood and by rich men who hanker for more wealth; this was performed by Śaṅkara and others ". But in course of time, the objects were brought down to the ordinary level as stated in the Devimāhātmya¹¹ 'by listening with devotion to my greatness in the great annual pūjā performed in autumn, a man becomes free from all troubles and becomes endowed with wealth and agricultural produce by my favour'. The exaggerated importance of this Durgā-pūjā will be clear from one verse of the Bhaviṣya 'rites like Agnihotra, solemn sacrifices described in the Vedas and completed with dakṣinā are not equal even to one hundred-thousandth part of the worship of Caṇḍikā.¹²

This Durgāpūjā is very cosmopolitan in character It could be performed not only by persons belonging to the four varṇas, but even by those who were outside the pale of the caste system Durgā-pūjā has a congregational character and is not purely religious, but has also a social element in it (such as inviting friends and treating them &c). The Bhaviṣyapurāṇa ¹³ says 'Devī should be worshipped (in her shrine) on Vindhya mountain, in all places, cities, houses, villages and forests by brāhmaṇas, kṣatriyas, kings, vaiśyas, śūdras, who are full of devotion, who have taken a bath and who are cheerful and jolly, by mlecchas and other men (such as pratilomas) and by women'. In another place the Bhaviṣya states ¹⁴ 'Durgā is worshipped by various groups of mlecchas, by all dasyus (thievish tribes or outcaste Hindus), by people from Aṅga, Vaṅga and Kalinga, by kinnaras, Barbaras (non-Aryans) and Śakas'. Later medieval writers were careful to point out that mlecchas had no adhikāra to perform japa or homa or pūjā with mantras through a brāhmaṇa as śūdras had, but they could only mentally resolve to offer in honour of Devī animals as offerings and wine¹⁵ also and do so. It is stated in the Skanda and Bhavisya ¹⁶ purāṇas that the worship of Caņdīkā in autumn (Āśvina) is of a threefold character; viz sāttvikī, rājasī and tāmasī. the sāttvikī worship is effected by japa, by-offering nawedya in which there is no meat; and japa consists in reciting the texts of the purāṇas in which the greatness of Devī is described; rājasī worship is effected by offering a bali and with nawedya which contains flesh; that is tāmasī worship which is effected by the offerings of wine and meat and from which japa is absent and which is without mantras, this last is approved among Kirātas (i e. forest tribes and the like) Raghunandana adds ¹⁷ in his Prāyaścitta- tattva that the offering of wine in Durgāpūjā relates to ages other than the Kali age (i e other than the present age).

It has been stated above (pp 110-111, n 280) that the principal gods are deemed to go to sleep for four months on different tithis from the pratipad (1st) of Āṣāḍha-śukla to the 15th. Therein Durgā is said to go to sleep on the 8th of the bright half of Āṣāḍha. Therefore, in Āśvina she would be asleep. Hence the texts provide for the rousing (bodhana) of Devī from sleep As usual there are conflicting views The Tithitattva ¹⁸ notices the views of some that if the Devī is to be worshipped as having 18 arms she was to be roused on the 9th of the dark half preceding Āśvina bright then the bodhana was to be on the 6th (of the bright half of Āśvina) Raghunandana does not accept this and holds that the bodhana of Devī with ten arms was to be either on the 9th (of the preceding dark half) or on the 6th (of the bright half of Āśvina). If the performer begins on the 9th of the dark half the saņkalpa will be as noted below. ¹⁹ He may, however, begin on the first tithi of Aśvina bright half and then the bodhana will be on the 6th of the bright half. If he begins on the pratipad the saṅkalpa will be as noted below.²⁰ Then he should recite Rg. VII. 16. 11 'God²¹ Dravinodas specially desires your ladle filled (with offering); may you pour out (Soma) or fill (the vessel with Soma); the god then immediately comes down'. Then he should establish a ghata* (a jar with a peculiar shape, the central portion bulging out, the neck narrow and the brim being broad and open), fill it with water, place twigs of mango and other sacred trees there-on and worship Durgā with the 16 or 5 upacāraṣ Then he should offer materials such as sandal-wood paste, myrobalan for purify-ing the hair and also a comb.²² On the 2nd tithi he should offer a silken ribbon for keeping the hair in position, on the third alaktaka (red lac) dye for reddening the feet, vermilion for putting it on the head, a mirror for observing the face; on the 4th tithi he should offer madhuparka (to the goddess), a silver piece having the shape of a tilaka (for the forehead) and collyrium as decoration for the eyes; on the 5th tithi he should offer sandalwood paste, unguents and ornaments according to his meanṣ If he starts Durgāpūjā-utsava from the 6th tithi either conjoint with Jyeṣṭhā-nakṣatra or without it he should go in the morning near a bilva tree, should utter the sankalpa noted below,²³ repeat Rg VII 16 11, establish a ghaṭa, should worship the bilva tree as Durgā. If he has already started the utsava on pratipad, then he should go near a bilva tree in the evening conjoint with Jyeṣṭhā or without it (and even if ṣaṣṭhi has expired before evening, then in the evening without ṣaṣṭhi) and rouse Devī with the mantra²⁴ 'for the destruction of Rāvaṇa and in order to favour Rāma, Brahma, O goddess, in former times roused you at an unusual time; therefore, I also awaken you in the evening of the 6th tithi of Āśvina.' After thus awakening Devī he should invite the bilva tree with the words 'O bilva tree! born on the top of Śrīśaila and the abode of Lakṣmī, I have to take you; come, you are to be worshipped as Durgā.' Then he should, after taking each of the substances mentioned below and accompanying each with a mantra, place them on the bilva tree and make it an auspicious dwelling place for Durgā. The substances for making a holy²⁵ residence for Devī are; earth or clay, sandalwood paste, pebbles, coriander, dūrvā grass, flowers, fruits, curds, ghee, svastika, vermilion, conch-shell, collyrium, rocanā (yellow pigment), mustard seeds, gold, silver, copper, whisk, mirror, lamp, praśastipātra (a broad-plate). Then he should repair to the pandal erected for Durga-pūjā, perform ācamana, should bind together with Aparājitā creeper twigs or leaves of nine plants²⁶ so as to form one bundle or sheaf, viz. plantain, pomegranate, coriander, turmeric, Ārum Indicum, Arum colocacia, bilva, aśoka and jayantī. Each of these substances is accompanied by an appropriate separate mantra.

He should offer worship to the bundle of nine plants and to the image (of Durgā) and make the Devī abide in the bilva tree with sandalwood (and other substances mentioned above). The rousing (bodhana) of the Devī and the invitation to the bilva tree are separate and are done with separate mantras (Tithitattva pp. 75–76). The two may be done at the same time if 6th tithi exists in the evening; but if it does not exist in the evening then bodhana may be done on the 6th and invitation on the 7th or bodhana may be done in the morning and invita-tion in the evening. The clay image of Durgā together with the twig of bilva is to be entered in the house and worshippeḍ The details of the complicated discussion are not set out here.

Then follow acts to be done on the 7th tithi. On the 7th tithi conjoint with mūla-nakṣatra or without it the performer after taking a bath approaches a bilva tree, worships it, folds his hands and says ‘O blessed bilva tree! you are always dear to Śankara; after taking from you a branch I shall perform Durgā worship; O Lord! you should not feel pain due to the cutting of a branch; O bilva! prince among trees, salutation to you!’ After saying this he should cut off from the bilva tree a branch other than one in the south-west or north-west and endowed with a couple of fruits (or without fruit) with the mantra noted below.²⁷ Then he should take the branch, come to the place of worship (the mandapa or the like) and place it on a pitha (a seat). Then taking white mustard grains he throws them with two mantras and effects the driving away of goblins, evil spirits, rākṣasas, Vināyakas that cause obstacles, takes up an offering of boiled rice and māṣa pulse and requests Kālī who is surrounded by goblins to accept that bali for protec- tion against the evil spirits and prays her to confer upon him- self all his objects in return for the offering of the bali. He then establishes the bundle of (the leaves and twigs) of nine plants tied together with Aparājitā creeper and the bilva branch, He worships the latter with ‘salutation to the bilva branch’ and honours Cāmuṇḍā on the bilva branch and the clay image with the words ‘this is pādya (water for washing the feet), salutation to Cāmuṇḍā’ and addresses the bilva branch with the mantra quoted in ṇ 413 above. Then he utters the mantra ‘O Cāmuṇḍā’! move, move, make others move, enter my house quickly and go to the place of worship, svāhā’. Then he establishes the ghaṭa, worships the nine plants and five devatās, establishes the image on a seat and the bundle of nine plants to its right to the accompaniment of songs and instrumental music and places the bilva branch in a copper vessel near the (image of) Devī and performs the prāṇa- pratiṣṭhā ²⁸ (vivifying or enḍowing with life) of the image of the Devī and of Gaṇeśa and other deities in the manner provided in the Durgārcanapaddhati (p 666) and Tithitattva (pp. 77-78). Then he should, after taking in his hand husked rice-grains and flowers, contemplate upon the form of Devī Then the Durgārcanapaddhati (pp. 666-667) quotes a long but finely worded passage from the Matsya, the corresponding passage from the Kālikāpurāṇa may be briefly rendered as follows ²⁹ Devī possesses a mass of hair, her head ornament is the crescent (full) moon, her complexion is like molten gold, she is well formed and has charming eyes, she is endowed with blooming youth, decked with all kinds of ornaments, has charming teeth, looks keen and has full and upraised breasts, her posture is such that she is bent at three places, she has crushed the demon Mahisa, she has ten arms long and soft like lotus stalks, she holds a trident in the right hand and a sword and discus below that (trident) in order, a sharp arrow and śakti (missile) in the group of her arms, a shield, a fully bent bow, a noose, a goad (held in order) from above and a bell and axe should be held in the left hand from below; under her one should show a headless buffalo from which rises a demon with a sword in his hand, who is pierced in the region of the heart by the trident (of Devī), who (demon) possesses teeth set awry, whose body is dyed red with blood, whose eyes are bloodshot and distended, who is encircled by a noose of snakes, whose face is rendered fearful by his curved eyebrows, whose hair is seized by Durgā with the left hand hold- ing a noose, whose mouth emits blood; one should exhibit Devī's lion; the right foot of Devī (should be shown) as resting evenly on the lion's back and her left foot toe (resting) a little higher on the demoṇ

Then the performer should put a flower on his head, take flowers and rice grains in his hand and make an invocation (āvāhana) with two mantras to Durgā to be present in the bilva branch and establish her with the prayer to bestow long life, health and prosperity. He offers to the Devī the several upacāras of āsana, pādya, arghya &c. Then he should go near the sheaf of nine plants and repeat the mantra “O blessed Durgā! come, enter into the (sheaf of) plants; this is your place in the mortal world; I throw myself on your mercy” So saying he should worship Devī in the ghata (jar) with ten or five upacāras or with flowers and sandalwood paste with separate mantras for each of the nine plants (mentioned in note 415) in the form ‘Hrim, om, kadalisthāyai brahmāṇyai namaḥ’ and so on (Durgārcanapaddhati⁴¹⁹ p. 669). Then he should worship Durgā with pādya and other upacāras⁴²⁰ and offer a kid or the like as an offering. The kid or he-buffalo should be dark and should be at least five years old⁴²¹.

Much has been written about the sacrifice of animals in Durgāpūjā Only a few points can be dealt with here. The Kālikā-purāṇa enumerates the following animals as fit for sacri-fice in honour of Durgā and Bhairava⁴²² ‘birds, tortoises, crocodiles, fish, deer of nine kinds, buffalo, gavaya (Gayal), bull, goat, mongoose, boar, rhinoceros, black antelope, śarabha (a fabulous animal), lion, tiger, a human being and blood from one’s own (i. e. the performer’s) body; but the females of the species specified above were not to be offered as bali; and the person who did so would go to hell. This was probably a con-cession to placate Devi who might have a soft corner for a bali of her own sex. The bali should have no defect and should not be one whose tail or ears were cut off Though the above list of victims that may be offered is long, usually only goats and he-buffaloes were sacrificed It is said ³⁵ ‘the Devī that resides on Vindhya is not so well pleased with the offerings of flowers, incense, and unguents and of other animals as she is pleased with offerings of rams and he-buffaloes’. The Varsa-kriya- kaumudi ³⁶ quotes “one should never offer to the great Devī a horse or elephant; if a brāhmaṇa offers a lion, a tiger or a human being (as bali) he would go to hell and even in this world he would have a short life and would be devoid of happiness and prosperity; if (a brāhmaṇa) offers his own blood, he would be guilty of suicide. If a brāhmaṇa offered wine he would lose his status as a brāhmaṇa. When wine is laid down as a necessary offering he should offer cocoanut water in a vessel of bell-metal or honey in a copper vessel.” But there were texts that contradict this For example, it is said in the Kalikāpurāṇa ‘goat, he-buffalo, human being are declared to be bali, mahābali and atibali, respectively.’ ³⁷ It has to be remembered that though an animal is killed still what is offered to the Devī is generally blood and the head of the victiṃ The Kalikāpurāṇa ³⁸ says ‘blood purified by the recitation of mantras over it and the head (of a victim) are said to be nectar; in the worship (of Devī) the adept worshipper should offer flesh rarely (if at all) except blood and the head, which (two) become nectar. The Kālikāpurāṇa further states that Śiva (Durgā) partakes of the head as well as the flesh of the victim, that one should offer in pūjā the blood and head of the victim, but the wise (devotee) should employ flesh in edibles and in homa. The Durgārcanapaddhati (pp 669-671) prescribes an elaborate ritual about killing the bali and offering its blood and head and the rites and mantras slightly differ according as the bali is a goat, a buffalo or the performer’s own blooḍ The ³⁹ bali is made to face the east, the sādhaka (devotee) faces the north and repeats certain mantras one of which is Vāj. S. 23. 17 'Agni was the animal to be sacrificeḍ They sacrificed with him, he conquered this world (the earth) on which Agni exists; that will be your world, you will conquer that world, drink this water. Vāyu (wind God) was the animal &c.; the Sun was the animal &c.' Another mantra is Manu V. 39 (=Viṣṇu-dharmasūtra 51. 61=Kālikā 71.39) viz. 'animals were created by Brahmā himself for serving the purpose of sacrifice, for the well-being of sacrifice and of all; therefore killing (an animal) in a sacrifice is no killing (does not cause the sin or blame of ordinary killing )'. He should place on the head of the bali a flower with a mantra; then he sprinkles water with kuśas over the bali and then worships the sword with the mantra ‘you of Caṇḍikā and you accomplish heaven (for the worshipper); Hrīm, Śrīm, O sword!’. The performer contemplates on the sword as described in Tithitattva (p. 81) and Durgārcana-paddhati (p 670), honours it with sandalwood paste and the rest and repeats eight names of the sword, bows to it, takes it up with the words ‘Ām, Hrīm, Phat’ and with one stroke cuts off the victim facing the east ( while the performer faces the north ) or facing the north (while the performer faces the east) Then he collects blood in a vessel of clay or other material, places it before the Devī and offers it with the words ‘this is the blood of the goat; Om, O Jayantī!’ and says ‘Aim, Hrīm, Śrīm, O Kauśikī! May she be pleased by the blooḍ’ Then he offers the head of the bali (goat or the like) placing on the head a lamp with a flaming wick He then takes blood from the sword (with which the animal’s neck was cut) and makes a tilakā mark with it on his forehead with two mantraṣ It was supposed that the tilakā of blood would make all persons amenable to the person who had that blood mark on the forehead as the mantra quoted below expresseṣ When the bali is a buffalo, the mantras repeated over a goat are omitted and two others are substituted viz. ‘as you hate a horse and as you carry Caṇḍikā, so kill my enemies and bring happiness, O buffalo; you are the vehicle of Yama, you possess excellent form, you who are deathless; bestow on me long life, wealth, fame, a bow to you who are a buffalo’. The fruit of offering buffalo's blood to Devī was deemed to be her gratification and favour for a hundred yearṣ Then he performs japa of a mantra (quoted in note)⁴⁰ and also certain verses of laudation and asks for certain benefits (Durgārcana. p. 672).⁴¹

The Kalikāpurāṇa in a long passage⁴² provides gradually rising periods of times for which Durgā becomes gratified by the offering of the blood of various animalṣ A few might be (offering of the) blood of fishes and tortoises, and for two months by (the blood of) crocodiles; by the blood of the black antelope and of the boar Devī is pleased for twelve years and by the blood of buffalo and rhinoceros for a hundred years; by the blood of the lion, the śarabha and from the performer’s body Devī is gratified for a thousand years and by a human being as a bali for a thousand yearṣ” There was a revulsion of feeling against blood sacrifices in some hearts and so even the Kālikā provides⁴³ that the offerings of kūṣmāṇḍa (pumpkin-gourd) and sugarcane stalks, intoxicants and āsavas (spirits distilled from molasses, flowers or herbs) are like (animal) victims and gratification (to the Devi) is the same as by the offering of a goat. But even in these days castes deemed higher, even including brāhmaṇas, offer goats and rarely buffaloes to Durga, if that is the custom of the caste or family. I understand that many families of learned brāhmaṇas such as the Bhaṭṭācāryas of Bhatpara in West Bengal sacrifice fruits and vegetables in lieu of animalṣ The Ahalyākāma-dhenu⁴⁴ says that some Vaiṣṇavas regard the night when victims are killed as horrible and do not eat food or even drink water on that night and that among brāhmaṇa castes the offering (bali) should be in the form of kūṣmāṇḍa and the like or flour images of animals or simple ghee should be offereḍ As to other castes also it has been declared that Kūṣmāṇḍa, bilva fruit, sugarcane stalks may be cut into pieceṣ

The convenient belief from very ancient times has been that a victim offered in sacrifice to gods and pitṛs went to heaveṇ Hemādri quotes verses saying that all the animals such as the buffalo that are employed for (gratifying) Devī go to heaven and those that kill them incur no siṇ⁴⁵

The foregoing is somewhat of a digression, as the bali is generally to be sacrificed on the 9th and as the rites of even of the 8th have not yet been describeḍ On the Mahāstami conjoined to Pūrvāsādhā-nakṣatra or without it, the devotee after taking a bath and sipping water, should face the east or north, sit on a seat of darbhas, perform purification of himself and the body which is made up of five elements by repeating separately the mystic letters ‘yam, ram, lam, vam’ in the manner set out on p. 673 of Durḡarcanapaddhati, then he performs prāṇāyāma, and then nyāsa on the several parts of the body from the heart and head to the feet. He sprinkles over himself and the materials of worship water contained in a vessel of conch-shell. and the like and over which he mutters eight times the mantra ‘Hrim, Om Durgayai namah’, he contemplates on Durgā as described on p. 163 and note 418 above, places a flower on his head, mentally offers upacāras (to Devī), again contemplates on Devī’s form and then offers the upacāras from āsana (seat) to praṇāma (as indicated in note 420 above) with appropriate brief mantraṣ Then he offers worship to several goddesses to the right side, front side and left side of Devī with brief mantras and to the Mātṛs³³ (64 are enumerated in Durgārcanao. pp. 676– 677, or 32, or 16 or 8) according to one’s ability with five upacāras or with sandalwood paste and flowers and to the eight mātṛs Brahmāṇī &c. Then there is aṅgapūjā (worship of Devī’s limbs) from heart and head to the feet. Then worship is offered to her weapons such as trident, sword, discus, sharp arrow, shield, fully strung bow, the noose, goad, bell; and then her lion-seat is honoured and also armour, whisk, umbrella, flag and flag-staff, drum, conch. Separate mantras are recited in connection with the pūjā of each of these, as laid down in Durgārcanapaddhati pp. 678–681, in the Nirṇayasindhu pp. 179–181 (which quotes them from Viṣṇudharmottara) and other workṣ They are all passed over here for saving space. Then he goes near the sheaf of nine plants and worships it with five upacāras or with sandal-wood paste and flowers offered to each separately. Then he makes an offering of māṣa pulse and boiled rice.

On the day on which there is Mahāṣṭamīpūjā the performer observes a fast. But a householder⁴⁷ who has a son should not observe a fast on the Mahāṣṭamī. He should follow one of the alternatives specified above in note 252 (naktam havisyannam &c). Whatever procedure about food he may follow, he, keeping himself pure and observing the rules of conduct for vrata, should worship Devī; he should offer worship on the Mahāṣṭamī and on the 9th with balis; he should take leave (of Devī) on the 10th with Śrāvaṇa-nakṣatra after performing the Śābara festival. When the last quarter of Śrāvana (nakṣatra) is running then he should give a send-off to Devī on the 10th tithi. The Tithitattva⁴⁹ positively asserts that a fast is to be observed on the same day on which Mahāṣṭamī-pūjā is performeḍ

On this 8th tithi the performer has to honour maidens, feed them and brāhmaṇas also. He may honour a maiden or maidens from the first to the 9th tithi, but he must do so at least on 8th. The Devīpurāṇa⁵⁰ says "Durgā is not so much gratified by homa, gifts and japa as she is gratified (becomes favourable) by honouring maidenṣ" And he has to give them dakṣiṇā also. Hemādri (on vrata vol I, 903-906) quotes a long passage from the Skanda-purāṇa on this subject. Skanda provides that the performer should feed maidens from the first tithi of Navarātra on a rising scale, viz. one maiden on the first tithi, two on the 2nd and so on up to nine on the 9th. If he feeds nine virgins every day (of the Navarātra) he secures land; if he feeds double the number on each succeeding day he gets prosperity. He should not honour a maiden who is one year old (or less), for, such a girl has not developed at that age liking for fruits, flowers and sandal-wood paste. Therefore, he should honour maidens who are from two to ten years old, and not those that are beyond ten yearṣ The Devīpurāṇa provides that if no virgin is available, one may honour even a married girl who has had no menstruation⁵¹. The Skanda provides that maidens from two years to ten should be honoured under the following names respectively, viz., Kumārikā (two years old), Trimūrti (three years old), Kalyāṇī, Rohinī, Kāli, Caṇḍikā, Śāmbhavī, Durgā, Subhadrā. The Skanda provides special pūjā mantras for each of the nine kinds of maidens and different rewards are provided for honouring each of the nine classeṣ These are passed over here. The general āvahanamantra for all in the morning after the performer has taken a ceremonial bath with oil is noted below.⁴⁴⁰ In this way he is to honour virgins with bodice, clothes, sandalwood paste, flowers and _akṣatas_, with different kinds of edibles and dishes and feed them with _pōyāsa_ (rice boiled in milk and sugar). One should not honour a maiden that has a limb more or less, that suffers from leprosy, or that has varicose veins or has a broken head or has limbs from which blood or pus oozes or has ulcers, that is blind from birth, is squint-eyed or blind of one eye or is ugly or has little hair or much hair or is diseased or is born of a slave womaṇ A man should honour a brāhmaṇa maiden in all acts, a kṣatriya maiden for victory, one belonging to untouchable castes in acts of terrible nature. After the maidens are fed, brāhmaṇas also should be fed (Durgārcana. pp. 681),

The Tithitattva (pp. 69–72), Nirṇayasindhu and other works provide that in the Navarātra the performer should hear the recitation of the Vedas (Vedapārāyaṇa) and that beginning with the first tithi up to the 9th he should himself mutter Caṇḍīpāṭha (recitation of Devīmāhātmya) or engage a person to do so, reciting it once on the first, twice on 2nd tithi and so on up to nine times on 9th tithi. The Devīpurāṇa provides for pūjā, japa and homa and the mantras therefore by saying that the worship of Devī is to be performed by casting into the fire sesame and with curds, milk and ghee. The Devī- mantra is either what is called the Jayantīmantra⁴⁴¹ (quoted in note) or the mantra of nine syllables ( quoted in the note ). The Dvaitanirṇaya-siddhāntasaṅgraha states that the mantra is either one that a man's _guru_ has taught him, or the Vedic verse ‘_Jātavedase sunavāma_’ (Rg. I 99.1) or one with nine letters or the one ‘_namo devyai mahādevyai_’ or the ślokas in the Saptaśati.⁴⁴² The Tithitattva quotes (pp. 69–71) a long passage from the Vārāhi-tantra about the result of reciting Devimāhātmya several timeṣ A few verses are cited for sample. "When some great danger threatens, one should recite (Devimāhātmya) seven times; if repeated twelve times one secures fulfilment of one's desires and the destruction of enmity; if repeated 14 times, an enemy would be subdued and a woman would be brought under one's control; repeating a hundred times results in increase of one's kingdom, if repeated a thousand times Lakṣmi comes to a man of her own accord As Asvamedha is the prince among sacrifices, as Hari (is superior) among gods, so the laud called Saptasati is the highest among all lauds ⁵⁵" The Tithitattva further provides that one should recite ⁵⁶ before the reading of the ‘prathamacarita’ the ṛṣi (sage), the metre &c. of it and also when repeating the Madhyamacarita and the Uttaracarita Very great importance was attached in ancient and medieval times to the recitation of mantras and even modern men brought up in English schools, colleges and Universities often implicitly believe in their efficacy, even if one may not understand their meaning. The qualities of the sounds of mantras or of parts of mantras (such as ‘hrīm’) and their potentialities, the various devices employed when using them are deemed of far greater importance than the meaning. The Gītā (X 25) itself puts Japa-yajña as the highest among yajñas such as those of dravya (materials or money), tapoyajña (Gītā IV 28). Mantras are supposed to have a tremendous effect on the sub-conscious mind and it may perhaps be so if one concentrates one’s mind thereon to the exclusion of all else. A person could himself recite the Saptaśati or engage a person to read it to him who was called pāṭhaka or vācaka as in T. T. p. 72, Durgārcana p 661 Some very orthodox writers went so far as to lay down that a śūdra could only listen to the Mahābhārata or Saptaśatī but could not read it himself. Raghu- nandana ⁵⁷ like Kamalākara appears to have held this view. One should stop reading at the end of a chapter and not in its middle; but if for some reason one had to stop in the middle of a chapter, when one again commenced reading or reciting Saptaśatī, one should not proceed from where one left off in the middle of a chapter, but begin with the first verse of the chapter half read or reciteḍ Provision was made that the reader engaged for reading Saptaśatī should be handsomely requited for his labour by gifts of gold, silver, cows with bell-metal pails for milking. Mr Ghosh notes (p. 39) that besides the reader of Devīmāhātmya a separate priest is selected to repeat the mūlamantra a hundred thousand times and is called Jāpaka. The Nirnayasindhu (pp 185-186) gives elaborate descriptions of Śatacaṇḍī-pāṭha and Sahasracaṇḍī. In the first, ten well-conducted brāhmaṇas including the ācārya are choseṇ They are to recite together Saptaśatī once on the 1st day, twice on the 2nd, thrice on the 3rd and four times on the 4th; in this way Saptaśatī would be repeated one hundred timeṣ In Sahasracaṇḍī one hundred brāhmaṇas are to be chosen and they are to repeat Saptaśatī for four days as in Śatacaṇḍī-pāṭha. A thousand brāhmaṇas are to be fed and one hundred cows are to be donateḍ The Nirnayasindhu notes that these two are not included in the great digests but there is popular usage to this effect.

After each pūjā prescribed for the day, the family members, their friends and guests sit together and partake of the prasāda (which in the houses of the well-to-do comprises select delicacies). Formerly, the persons sitting together would have sometimes numbered hundreds, but in the days of rationing and control, this would not happeṇ Mukerji (p. 124) notes that guests made offerings to the goddess (usually cash which belongs to the owner and not to the priest.)

After the pūjā, homa is performed as indicated above; offerings are to be made in fire called ‘Balada’⁵⁸ with the word ‘svāhā’ at the end to the accompaniment of a mantra preceded by ‘om’. The Durgārcana-paddhati notes (p. 681) that after the special rites on the Mahāṣṭamī described above (viz. pūjā, honouring maidens, homa &c.) are finished the rest of the tithi should be spent by the devotee in dance, songs⁵⁹ and music ( jāgara ) It appears that in the Devi and Kālikā purāṇas it is provided that even on the 8th at midnight an animal such as a goat or he-buffalo should be sacrificed and that on the 9th tithi many balis were to be sacrificeḍ 'When the Sun is in the sign of Kanyā (Virgin or Virgo) and in the month of Isa (Āśvina) one should offer pūjā on the 9th tithi of the bright half; one should observe a fast ( on that tithi ) and at midnight should begin pūjā of Devi with great expenditure and paraphernalia when the nakṣatra is Mūla or Purvāṣādhā; an animal should be killed and a he-buffalo and a goat should be sacrificed'.⁶⁰ A short period of time, viz. the last ghațikā⁶¹ of Mahāṣṭami and the first ghațikā of navami, was called 'sandhi'. During that period of two ghațikās a pūjā of Devi together with Yoginīs is to be performed which is deemed to be the holiest pūjā (Ghosh p. 120) This pūjā is to be performed like the pūjā on Mahāṣṭami, but the bali is to be offered at and after the Mahānavami begins ⁶² and not during the last ghațikā of Mahāṣṭami. Now the rites of the Mahānavami have to be describeḍ On the 9th tithi conjoined to Uttaraṣādha nakṣatra or without it, pūjā is to be performed on the lines of the one of Mahāṣṭami. This day's pūjā is ⁶³ only a repetition of that on the 8th, the only difference being that a larger number of balis (goāts etc.) may be sacrificed on it than on the 8th tithi. A bali is to be offered as it is obligatory to do so on the 9th⁶⁴ Then the wor-shipper should perform homa, if able to do so. If he be unable to perform homa on both days, he should perform it on Mahāstamī. The offerings in the fire are to be 108. If a person cannot perform a homa in person he should choose a brāhmaṇa to do it, while a śūdra must always get the homa performed through a brāhmaṇa. Lamps should be waved before the Devī (nīrājana)⁶⁴ from her head down to her feet. Daksinā (fee) to the priest for the whole of the autumnal pūjā is to be given on the 9th tithi and Raghunandana expressly⁶⁵ says that the Durgā-bhakti-taranginī is wrong in saying that daksinā is to be paid after taking leave (visarjana) of Devī. The sankalpa at the time of giving daksinā is given in the note.⁶⁶ If no daksinā be paid, the whole rite becomes fruitlesṣ Then he should pray that 'all defects in the pūjā may be remedied, that whatever he has offered with a devout heart, whether leaves or flowers, fruits or water, whatever naivedya he has offered, may be graciously accepted by Devī and that if any mistake has occurred by his missing some letter or mantra Devī should forgive all that'. He should wash the feet of a brāhmaṇa maiden and give her sumptuous dinner and ask her to place with her hand on his head akşatas and devoutly follow her a few stepṣ He should feed brāhmanaṣ It is the practice in many families to embrace each other and sing the praise of Durgā while drums are beateṇ Then in a large procession they visit the houses of such relatives and neighbours as have performed the pūjā. Then the united procession visits other houses and the parties return the visits to each other by turns and wish happiness and good luck to each other and offer sweetṣ Rājanītiprakāśa (pp. 439–444) quotes a long passage from the Devī-purāṇa about the worship of Devī on 9th of Asv śu

On the 10th tithi after bathing and sipping water he should offer worship with sixteen upacāras or with as many as possible, should praise Devī with these words ‘Om Durgam Śivāṁ’ &c. (on p 672 of Durgārcanapaddhati), should prostrate himself before her and make request to Devī with the mantra ‘Mahisaghni mahāmāye &c’ (_ibid_ p. 672) and with the verse quoted ^{454 a} below take a flower and cast it on the image with the words ‘forgive’. Then after repeating two verses he should raise the image (of Devī), the bilva twig and the sheaf of nine plants from their places and keep them in another place and wave lamps made of ^{454 b} flour before them He should go near the water of a river with dance, song, music, Vedic recitations and auspicious sports and pastimes and immerse the image in a tank or in a river after the prayer ^{454 c} ‘O Durgā, mother of the world, go to your place in order to come back after the lapse of a year.’ Then he should perform the śābarotsava This last means that actions usually associated with the śabaras (i. e. aboriginal tribes like the Bhils &c ) should be indulged in (to express ecstacy of the Durgāpūjā) on the 10th tithi after the immersion of the image of Devi.⁶⁷ The Kālaviveka quotes Satya to the effect that leave is taken of Devi on the last pāda of Śrāvaṇa- nakṣatra in the day and śābarotsava is celebrated on the 10th, and explains that what is meant is that like men of the Śabara tribe, people wear leaves of trees, their bodies are besmeared with mire, they make incoherent prancing movements and are engaged in dances, songs and music. The Kālikāpurāṇa dwells on this at great length. It says: “the utsarjana (sending away) of Devi should be made with festivals in the manner of śābaras, viz. people may make merry to their heart's content by throwing dust and mud, with auspicious sports and revelry, with indulgence in words and songs referring to male and female organs and with words expressive of the sexual act. The Devi becomes angry with him who does not abuse another and whom others do not abuse and pronounces on him a terrible curse.” This pro- vision that every one, how highsoever, was to join in the śābarotsava was probably made for emphasizing that before the Devi the highest and the lowest were of equal status and every men were equal at least one day in the year. After the immer- sion friends visit friends and partake of sweetṣ It appears that this last practice is now not in vogue.

A few words must be said with reference to certain relevant matterṣ How Devi was to be contemplated upon can be seen from p 163, note 418 above. That shows that only the image of Devi with the lion and the demon Mahiṣāsura was to be constructeḍ In the Mārk. purāṇa⁶⁸ it is stated that Devi strode over the great demon's throat, struck him with her trident and with her heavy sword cut off his head and made him fall down on the grounḍ But in modern times the image of Devi is placed in a structure of wickerwork and there are images of Lakṣmi and Gaṇeśa on the right side and of Sarasvatī and Kārtikeya on the left⁶⁹. Raghunandana does not make much of these additional deities, though he speaks of the prāṇapratiṣṭhā of Gaṇeśa and otherṣ On p. 146 of ‘Cave temples of India’ by Fergusson and Burgess reference is made to a tableau at Mahavalli-puram of the strife between Mahiṣāsura and Devī (with eight arms), which the learned authors assign to the period 650-700 A. D The image may be made of gold or silver, clay, metal, stone or there may only be a picture of Devī. For Durgāpūjā it is not absolutely necessary that there should be an image Devī may be worshipped⁷⁰ in a liṅga, on an altar or in a book, in her pādukās (wooden or stone feet), in image, in a picture or a trident or sword or in water. Some of the purāṇas like Garuḍa and Bhaviṣya⁷¹ state that on the 7th or 8th tithi nine wooden houses or only one with four corners may be constructed, that in the midst of it a platform or altar of four cubits in length and breadth should be made on which a throne of silk, woollen cloth and deer-skin should be prepared, whereon Durgā (image) made of gold, silver, clay or wood was to be established having four or ten arms, possessing a complexion like heated gold, three eyes and the moon as a head ornament.

There is no unanimity about the arms of Devī. The Varāha-purāṇa (95.41) speaks of 20 arms of Devī and mentions the twenty weapons she carries (95. 42-43 ) In the Devībhāgavata V. 8. 44 she is said to have 18 arms Hemādri (on vrata, vol. I. pp. 923-924 ) quotes verses in which Devī is said to have eight arms and ten arms respectively. Vidyāpati⁷² quotes passages for both ten arms and eight armṣ It appears that different numbers of arms were associated with different forms and names of Devi. For example, Vidyāpati in describing the form of Kālī or Cāmundā speaks of her as having four armṣ In the Virāṭaparva (chap. 6) where Yudhisthira praises Durgā, she is described ( in verse 8) as having four armṣ

There are varying views about the word ‘navarātra’. Some hold that navarātra means ‘nine days and nights’; it signifies only the time for a vrata (i. e. it is a gunavidhi ), not the name of a rite ( karma ), while others contend that navarātra is the name of a rite or vrata, which may last for eight days ( if there is tithikṣaya ) or ten days ( if there is vṛddhi of a tithi from the first tithi to the 9th ). The first view is held by works like the Kālatattvavivecana (pp. 270–272), while the 2nd is held by the Nirnayasindhu⁷³ (p. 165 ), the Puruṣārthacintāmaṇi (p. 61 ) and otherṣ As the discussion is scholastic and hardly of any practical importance it is passed over here.

The principal matters in Navarātra or Durgāpūjā, though it may be spread over three days ( from 7th tithi ) or nine days ( from 1st to 9th ), are four as laid down by the Lingapurāṇa. viz. snāpana⁷⁴ (bathing the image), pūjā, the offering of a victim (bali) and homa. For want of space snāpana has not been dwelt upon in the above. The Durgārcanapaddhati (p. 674), the Vratarāja (p. 340) and other digests state at length how the image of Durgā may be bathed with scented water, with milk, curds, ghee, pañcagavya of a kapilā cow, sugarcane juice and what rewards are reaped by particular kinds of bathṣ One example is given here for a sample.⁷⁵ The man who even for a day bathes Candikā with pañcagavya to the accompaniment of Candigāyatri goes near Vișnu If the image is made of some material (like clay) that cannot bear a water bath, the bright sword placed near Devi's image may be bathed or a mirror, as stated by the Kālikāpurāṇa The other three out of the four principal items in Durgāpūjā have been dealt with above. Out of the four, pūjā is the most important and a fast is only an aṅga (ancillary matter).

Then the question arises as to when pūjā is to be performeḍ Here there are varying viewṣ The Samaya-mayūkha⁷⁶ (p. 14) quoting Devi-purāṇa appears to hold that the pūjā should be in the morning, while the Nirnayasindhu (p 165) holds that it should be at night It appears from the Devi-purāṇa and Kālikāpurāṇa that pūjā in the morning, mid-day and at night is intended⁷⁷ ' When the sun is in sign Virgo, the devotee should follow the method of ayācita or nakta or take food only once or subsist only on water beginning from the nandaḱā tithi of the bright half, should bathe in the morning, should rise superior to the opposites (of heat and cold, happiness and pain &c) and should worship (Śiva and) Śivā three times a day.' The Kālatattvavivecana⁷⁸ resolves this conflict by saying that morning and midday pūjās are brief, the principal and elaborate pūjās are at night only. There is some confusion caused by the texts laying down the nakṣatras, tithis or both on which the different items in the Durgāpūjā were to be performed The Kālaviveka quotes Vyāsa as follows: 'one should awaken Devi on Ārdrā-nakṣatra, make her enter (the devotee's house) on Mūla, and having worshipped her on Uttarāṣāḍhā should take leave of her on Śravaṇa.⁷⁹ Most digests refer only to the tithiṣ For example, we saw above (p. 159 note 411) that on the 7th tithi the bilva branch is to be brought to the house, on the 8th fast, pūjā and jāgara are to be observed, the balī is offered on 9th, and on the 10th nirajana and discharging the Devi take place. Some texts combine the tithi and nakṣatra for the several parts of Durgāpūjā. For example, the Rājamārtaṇḍa verse (q in ṇ 426 above) says 'one should, after propitiating with faith (Devi) by the head, flesh and blood of several kinds of animals, take leave of her on Śravaṇa-nakṣatra and 10th tithi'. The Devipurāna provides⁸⁰ 'The bilva tree should be addressed with a mantra on 6th tithi joined to Jyeṣṭhā, (the sheaf of) plants should be brought into the house on the 7th joined to Mūla, fast, pūjā and homa take place on the 8th joined to Pūrvāṣāḍhā, on the 9th joined to Uttarāṣāḍhā one should worship Durgā with animal sacrifices and after prostrating oneself before her leave should be taken of her on 10th tithi joined to Śravaṇa'. It often happened that the tithi and nakṣatra provided for an item did not tally and some rules were evolveḍ The first rule is: if both tithi and nakṣatra as provided tallied then that led to very good results, as said in the Lingapurāna 'even if there be no Mūla-nakṣatra one should enter the bilva branch in the house on the seventh; the same rule applies to other tithis, but if the nakṣatras exist on the tithis specified there is increase of the results or rewardṣ The second rule was that tithi was superior⁸¹ and therefore even if the nakṣatra did not exist on the tithi specified, one should follow the tithi laid down for the several items in Durgāpūjā. Devala and Lalla⁸² laid this dowṇ

One question on which there is difference of view is about the tithi on which Navarātra is to be begun when pratipad is mixed with amāvāsyā or dvitīyā. There are very lengthy discussions in the Nirṇayasindhu, Kālatattvavivecana, Puruṣārtha-cintāmaṇi and other workṣ Some quote passages from the Devī and other purāṇas condemning the beginning of navarātra on pratipad mixed with amāvāsyā. Devī is made⁸³ to say 'in my worship pratipad which is joined to amāvāsyā should not be accepted; pratipad existing only for a muhūrta (two ghatikās) at sunrise and then joined to the 2nd tithi should be accepted (for commencing Navarātra festival)'. On the other hand there⁸⁴ are texts like the following: if one were to accept for the (beginning of the) worship of Caṇḍikā pratipad joined to part of 2nd tithi through ignorance or through another's advice, that leads to the death of that person's soṇ The Samayāmṛikha says that both classes of texts are baseless or if they are authoritative they leave the matter undecided as they are opposed to each other. The decision has to be arrived at in a different manner. 'If pratipad is mixed with amāvāsyā but does not exist the next day, then it must be accepted for starting Navarātra as there is no other alternative. Therefore, even a pratipad mixed with amāvāsyā has to be accepted in such a case in spite of texts to the contrary. If pratipad starts with sunrise and spreads over the next day for less than three muhūrtas, then the full pratipad has to be accepted for beginning nava- rātra. If at first there is amāvāsyā for one muhūrta, then pratipad follows and then spreads over the next day up to less than three muhūrtas, then this latter, that is, pratipad mixed with dvitīyā has to be accepted as the beginning. For want of space all possible alternatives are not dealt with here.

One important matter was not stressed above. On the first day of Navarātra one has to establish a kalaśa or ghaṭa. A full kalasa has been a symbol of holiness and prosperity from early Vedic times (compare Rg. III. 32.15 ‘apūrno asya kalaśaḥ’). This is a rite which is performed in the Deccan, Gujarat and Saurāṣṭra even though the elaborate Durggāpūjā of Bengal finds no place there. The procedure given in Durggābhaktitarangiṇī p 3. Nirṇayasindhu (p. 767), Vratarāja (pp. 62–66), Puruṣārtha- cintāmaṇi (pp. 66–67) and other works is elaborate. Ghaṭa- sthāpana is spoken of in Durggārcanapaddhati (p. 663) and has to be performed by day and not at night. One should make ⁸⁵ an altar with holy clay and sow yava and wheat grains thereon with Rg. X. 97. 22, and establish a jar there of gold, silver, copper or clay with Rg. IX. 17. 4, fill the jar with water with Rg. X. 75. 5 (imam me Gange &c.), and cast in the jar sandal- wood paste, sarvauṣadhi, ⁸⁶ dūrvā grass, leaves of five trees (mango &c.), clay from seven places, fruit, five jewels and gold with appropriate mantras, surround it with a piece of cloth with Rg. III. 8. 4, place a pūrṇa-pātra (a cup filled with rice grains) on the jar and worship Varuṇa thereon, contemplate on Durggā (as described in note 418) and invoke Durggā to come and be present in the jar along with all groups of gods and offer the upacāras from pādya onwards, fold his hands, offer a prayer and boiled rice with māsa pulse or a kūṣmāṇḍa &c. In the Deccan the main items in the Navarātra are the establishment of ghaṭa, offering a garland of flowers on every tithi up to the 9th, a strict code of conduct (such as not shaving oneself) to be observed by the performer. If on the pratipad day on which the jar is to be established there is citrā-nakṣatra⁸⁷ and the astrological con- junction called Vaidhṛti, it is to be done at the end of these, but if these two exist the whole of the day, then the rite should be performed in the latter part of these two. The S. M. held that these texts were baseless According to Ghosh (p. 76), in Bengal nine jars are established in a figure (sarvatobhadra) filled with coloured powders at prescribed places and these are decorated with nine differently coloured flagṣ But in some parts of India only one ghata is establisheḍ

Hemādri (on Vrata, vol I. p 906) quotes Devīpurāṇa for honouring horseṣ⁸⁸ The Durgāpūjā was meant for all. Kings and such men as kept horses were advised to honour horses in Navarātra from the 2nd tithi in conjunction with Svāti-nakṣatra up to 9th tithi The Durgabhaktitarangiṇī devotes several pages to this nīrājana of horses from Śālihotra, Bhoja, Varāha- mihira and other authorities (pp. 56-63 and 67-69). Kings were advised to perform Lohābhisārika rite about horses from Aśvin-śukla first to Mahānavamī (H V. I. 910-916, N. S. 178, R. N. P. 414-416). For Lohābhihārika or Nīrājana rite, vide H. of Dh. Vol. III. p. 230 notes 309-311 and p. 910 note 1773. Although the Kṛtyakalpataru (on vrata) does not speak of Durgotsava on the lines stated above, the Naiyatakālika section of that work (pp. 408-410) quotes a long passage from the Bhavisyapurāna⁸⁹ which states that Mahiṣa was killed by Candikā and therefore she should be worshipped on navamī, all varnas should worship her, kings should fast on it and gifts should be made; the Devī is pleased by the offering of the devotee's own blood and flesh and of he-buffaloes, goats and ramṣ It specifies the periods for which gratification is felt by the Devī by the offering of various balis and avers that all dasyus and various mleccha tribes, the Angas, Vangas, Kalingas, Kinnaras, Barbaras and Śākas worship her.

The Kṛtyakalpataru on Vrata does contain a vrata called Durgāṣṭamīvrata derived from the Devīpurāṇa (pp. 225-233), but it has nothing to do with the exploits of Durgā.

Hemādri also (on vrata, vol. I. pp. 856-862) contains the same vrata with a few variationṣ That vrata is entirely different from the Durgotsava described in the Kālikāpurāṇa. In the first place there is no reference in it to the killing of Mahiṣāsura. In the next place, that vrata is described as beginning from the 8th of Śrāvaṇa-śukla and going on for one year in each succeeding month on the 8th of the bright half. Feeding virgins and brāhmaṇas is mentioned in it also, but in each month the food offered to Devī and to the virgins is generally different.

About the antiquity of the worship of Durgā, vide H. of Dh. vol. II pp. 738-739. A few matters that were not and that could not be mentioned there are noted here. Ambikā is said to be the sister of Śiva in Tai.⁴⁷⁷ S., but in the times of the Tai. Ar. X. 18 Śiva is said to be the husband of Ambikā or Umā. In the Vanaparva chap. 6 (where there is a long laud of Durgā⁴⁷⁸ by Yudhiṣṭhira), she is described as the daughter of Yaśodā and Nanda and as the sister of Vāsudeva, is addressed as Kālī, Mahākālī and Durgā, in verses 10-11 the weapons carried by her in her hands are mentioned and in verse 15 she is said to have destroyed Mahiṣāsura. When Arjuna (in Bhīṣma 23) offers a Durgāstotra at the bidding of Kṛṣṇa, he gives her several names, among which are Kumārī, Kālī, Kapālī, Kapilā, Bhadrakālī, Mahākālī, Caṇḍī, Kātyāyanī, Kauśikī, Umā. But as the dates of these passages in the Mahābhārata are far from certain no chronological conclusion can be stateḍ Literary works and coins supply some firm data about the antiquity of the Durgā cult. In the Raghuvamśa chap II a lion is said to have been appointed a guard to protect a devadāru (pine) tree planted by Pārvati. Pārvati is called Gaurī in Raghu. II 26 and in Kumāra- sambhava VII. 95 and Bhavānī in Kumārao (VII, 84), Candī in Meghadūta (I. 33). Similarly, in the Kumārasambhava the Ardhanārīśvara form of Śiva is mentioneḍ⁹² The mātrs are referred to in the same work (VII 30, 38) and also Kālī with skulls as ornaments (ibid VII, 39). In the Mālatī-mādhava (Act V) the offering of human victims to Cāmuṇḍā in the city of Padmāvatī is mentioneḍ In the Mṛcchakatika VI. 27 the legend of the killing of Śumbha and Niśumbha by Durgā occurṣ If we hold that Kālidāsa flourished between 350-450 A. D., the above evidence makes it quite probable that the worship of Durgā may go back some centuries before 300 A. D. The evidence of coins lends support to this conclusioṇ A simhavāhinī goddess is seen on the reverse of the coins of Candragupta I of the Gupta⁹³ dynasty (about 305–325 A. D.). On a coin of the late Kuśāna king Kaneśhko the reverse shows the figure of a goddess with a lunar crescent seated full face on a lion crouching left and the goddess appears to have a noose and sceptre.⁹⁴ The lion as vehicle and the noose indicate that the goddess should be Durgā and not Lakṣmī. This would take us to the first or 2nd century A. D.

Why two Navarātras were recognized (in Caitra and Āśvina) is a matter of conjecture. It is possible that these two pūjās arose from the fact that spring crops and autumn crops became ready at these two timeṣ The worship of Durgā was very much influenced by Śākta doctrines and practiceṣ Ghosh in his work on ‘Durgāpūjā’ (p XVI ff) tries to establish that the Vedic idea of Dawn (Usas) spreading over the sky was changed by the Purāṇas and Tantras into the terrific goddess Durgā. I am not prepared to accept this explanation at all, as the links between the Vedic goddess Dawn and the terrible goddess of the Kālīkā-purāṇa are altogether wanting and as there is a gap of many centuries between the disappearance of Usas from the ancient pantheon and popular worship and the emergence of Durgā. There may be some astrological connec- tion between Durgā ( Virgo ) riding a lion ( Leo ). But this also cannot be clearly made out.

In the Indian Historical Quarterly vol. 21 (pp 227–231 ) Mr. N. G. Banerjee refers to the Durgotsava-paddhati of Udaya- simha which begins with the Mahānavami and a sankalpa for victory and ends with the description of horses marching on daśamī to victory and avers that this work indicates that Durgapūjā was originally a military rite and was later on trans- formed into a religious festival. He relies upon the description in the Raghuvamśa ( IV. 24–25 ) how the advent of Sarad ( autumn ) season impelled Raghu to march on an invasion and to perform the śānti rite for horses called Aśvanirājana and also on the Brhatsamhitā, chap. 44 ( Kern’s eḍ ) where occurs an elaborate description of the nīrājana of horses, elephants and fighters on the 8th, 12th, or 15th of the bright half of Aśvina or Kārtika. There are serious objections against accepting this theory. It is not unknown that unconnected celebrations may be joined together on the same tithi or tithiṣ For example, in many parts of North India the Rāmalīlā festival for ten days is associated with Navarātra dayṣ But Navarātra and Rāmalīlā are independent of each other and in some parts even of North India, only one or the other is popular and celebrated and not both. There is nothing improbable in there being two occasions for nīrājana, one in Durgotsava and another on the occasion of a king’s march on an invasioṇ Besides, a work of the 15th century can hardly be relied upon as evidence for explaining the origin of a festival that was in vogue for about a thousand years at least before that work. Moreover, if it was the usage to celebrate the marching on an invasion in Āśvina with nirājana ( lustration ), that rite might have been borrowed from that in Durgotsava by analogy instead of the utsava having adopted the military usage. The Kālikā-purāṇa which describes at length Durgotsava also speaks of the nirājana in Āśvina śukla on the 8th and the worship of a noble handsome horse for seven days with sandalwood paste, flowers &c and requires the observation of the horse’s movements for drawing prognostica- tions ( chap 88. 15–75 ). There is nothing to show that the details of Durgotsava described in the Kālikā and other purāṇas did not exist in the 4th, 5th and 6th centuries A. D. when Kālidāsa and Varāhamihira flourished and mentioned the lustration of horseṣ The theory of Mr N. G. Banerjee appears to be unwarranted by the evidence so far available and cannot be accepteḍ