Chapter XVII. Muhūrtas for Religious Rites

Volume V: Part I pp. 604–640

Chapter XVII. Muhūrtas for Religious Rites

We shall now turn to the muhūrtas for religious rites and actions of individualṣ Only a few of the rites and actions can be briefly dealt with here. A few general rules may however be first stateḍ The Atharvaṇa ¹ Jyotiṣa says that a wise man should perform an act or rite with the concurrence of all the four, viz. tithi, nakṣatra, karaṇa and muhūrta, if he wants success in it. If a proper tithi cannot be secured then the other three should be availed of, if the first two are not available then secure muhūrta alone; but if there be necessity to hurry and none of the four can be secured, then with the loud declaration by (learned) brāhmaṇas that it is an auspicious day he should do the act and success is secureḍ Certain religious acts have to be done at stated times and in those cases, one should not consider the conditions of Jupiter and Venus called bālya and old age or the fact of Jupiter being in Lion sign, or of dakṣiṇāyana or there being an inter-calary month, as for example, in the rites from puṃsavana up to annaprāśana. The Rājamārtaṇḍa ² states ‘the correct astrological position of planets and days is not meant for times of distress, all these (rules about auspicious positions) are to be considered when life is easy (matters are in good condition), so says Bhrgu’. Monday, Wednesday, Thursday and Friday confer success in all actions (begun on those days), only those actions succeed on Sunday, Tuesday and Saturday, for which those days are expressly laid down as proper. But the Nārada-purāṇa says that Wednesday, Thursday and Friday are the best, Sunday and Monday are middling and the other two, viz. Tuesday and Saturday, are condemned for Upanaayana ³ The general rule is that all undertakings succeed when they are begun while the 3rd, 6th, 10th and 11th places from the lagna are either in conjunction with or have an aspect with an auspicious planet and the lagna is also in conjunction with the two, when the 8th and 12th places are faultless and the Moon is in the 3rd, 6th, 10th or 11th place.⁴

It should be remembered that the usual tendency of our mediæval dharmaśāstra writers is generally to heap details on what were originally simple ceremonieṣ

Among the Saṁskāras it is best to begin with Jātakarma (rites at the birth of a child). The Ratnamālā⁵ provides that the rites on the birth of a son should be performed on a mrdu, dhruva, ksipra or a cara naksatra and the good recommend the giving of a name when Jupiter or Venus is in catustaya (i. e. in the 1st, 4th, 7th or 10th bhāva in the infant's horoscope). As regards birth some writers (e. g. M. M. IV. 19) speak of Gandānta which is inauspicious in birth, marriage and starting on a journey or invasion, viz. the conjunction of 15th tithi with pratipad for two ghatikās, similarly half a ghatikā when Cancer and Lion or Scorpion and Archer or Fish and Ram join and the four ghatikās of the junction of Revatī and Aśvinī, Aślesa and Maghā, Jyesthā and Mūla. These Gandānta conjunctions produce evil for the child's father or mother &c. Similar results are predicted for birth on certain parts of Āslesa and Mūla. About naming a child Manu provides that it should be performed on the 10th or 12th day from birth or on an auspicious tithi or on a muhūrta or naksatra possessed of auspicious characteris- tics⁶. About caula or cūdākarma ( tonsure ) Āśvalāyana-grhya (I. 17. 1) provides a simple rule that it should be performed in the third year after birth or according to family usage, while Manu (II 35) provides that it may be performed in the first or third year; the Aśv. gr. however, has provided for caula, upanayana, godāna and marriage the proper time of the northward passage of the sun, the fortnight of the waxing moon and an auspicious naksatra. The Āp. gr. (16. 3) states that it may be performed in the 3rd year after birth on Punarvasu naksatra. But medieval writers have added numerous astrological details For example, the Rājamārtanda devotes thirty-two verses to cūḍā (folios 16 to 18 ), one remarkable provision being that the Yavanas regarded cūḍākarṇa in the Sun's northward passage as auspicious ⁷. Vyāsa quoted by Sṃ C. says ‘tonsure should be performed on Aśvinī, Śravaṇa, Svāti, Citra, Pusya, Punarvasu, Dhaniṣṭhā, Revatī, Jyeṣṭhā, Mrgaśirsa and Hasta and should not be performed on the person's naksatra of birth, nor on Pūrvabhādrapadā, Uttarābhadrapadā and Krttikā, one should avoid for tonsure the first tithi (after amāvāsyā ), riktā tithi ( 4th, 9th and 14th ), Visti, Sunday, Tuesday, Saturday and night ⁸. Similar rules are laid down for ordinary shaving in the case of grown-up men ⁸. Some verses may be quoted here ‘the following naksatras are beneficial in the matter of shaving, viz. the naksatras, Hasta, ¹⁰ Citra, Svāti, Mrgaśiras, Śravana, Dhaniṣṭhā Śatabhiṣak, Revati, Aśvinī, Jyesthā, Pusya and Punarvasu or when any naksatra is at the time of its rise in conjunction with the moon provided there is also tārābala (as defined below ). Shaving is commended when the rising sign is Makara, Dhanus, Kanyā, Mithuna or Vrsa; observing this produces prosperity, strength and growth of intelligence, if when any of the other signs is rising, that leads to disease and danger Shaving is allowed on all naksatras at the king's command, with a brāhmaṇa's consent, at the time of marriage, on the advent of impurity due to death, on the release of an imprisoned person and in dīkṣā (consecration rites ) on a solemn Vedic sacrifice'. We now turn to Upanayana, one of the two most important samskāraṣ Āśvalāyana-grhya (I. 4. 1) as noted above (p 605). laid down one simple rule for the proper time of four samskāraṣ Ap Dh ¹¹ S. laid down two further rules providing that the upana-yana of a brāhmaṇa, kṣatriya or vaiśya boy should be performed respectively in spring, summer and autumn and the proper ages for these three are respectively the 8th, 11th and 12th from conception The same ages are prescribed by Manu II, 36 and Yāj. I. 14. It may be noted that none of the sūtras nor the smṛtis of Manu and Yājñavalkya say a word about the position of planets or rāśis or week-days or month. Gradually such rules were heaped up. The Rājamārtanda devotes 70 verses (from 304 to 373 on folios 20a to 24a ) to upanayana It states that the years were to be counted from conception or birth. To find proper muhūrtas for upanayana has become a very intricate matter and such muhūrtas are few and far betweeṇ Only a few such rules can be indicated here. First as to monthṣ One text lays down ‘ Upanayana is commended (for all) when performed in the five months from Māgha (1, e from Migha to Jyestha); while Vṛddha-Gārgya quoted in Kālādarśa provides that it may be performed in the six months from Māgha. ¹² Another rule provided that no auspicious rites (like upanayana and marriage) should be performed on the nakṣatra, month and week-day on which the person concerned was born and no auspicious rite for the eldest son or eldest daughter should be performed in the month of Jyestha ¹³ The sages differed about the month of birth. Vasiṣṭha said that only the day of birth was to be avoided, Garga says only eight days of the month of birth were to be avoided, Atri says ten days and Bhāguri says the fortnight of birth in the month was to be avoideḍ¹⁴ No upanayana was to be performed when the moon was lost in the rays of the sun, when Venus had set, when the sun was in the first amśa (degree) of a rāśi and on days which were declared to be unfit for vedic study and on galagraha (as stated in the note).¹⁵ Certain tithis and times were called galagraha (as stated in the note).¹⁶ If Jupiter be in the 2nd, 5th, 7th, 9th or 11th rāśi from the rāśi of birth, then Jupiter is very auspicious; if Jupiter be in the 1st, 3rd, 6th or 10th rāśi from the rāśi of birth he becomes auspicious after a śānti rite; if Jupiter be in the 4th, 8th or 12th rāśi from birth he is inauspiciouṣ¹⁷

One rather convenient doctrine of the astrologers was that an evil planet may be mollified and the evil consequences of its influence avoided, or, if not altogether avoided, substantially reduced or abated by appropriate rites (called śāntis) or by wearing certain precious stones and metals and by various other means enumerated in the Ratnamālā.¹⁸ 'One should wear coral for appeasing Mars and the Sun, silver for Venus and the Moon, gold for Mercury, pearl for Jupiter, iron for Saturn and rāgāvarta (a kind of inferior gem) for the other two (Rāhu and Ketu). The Ratnamālā provides that planets may not possibly afflict a man if he engages in prostrations before images of gods and before brāhmaṇas, if he carries out the advice of elders, by holding daily conversations with the good, by listening to the loud recitation of the Vedas and to the stories about the great, by offering homa, by seeing the performance of Vedic sacrifices, by making the mind pure, by japa (inaudible repetition of mantras), by making giftṣ The Brhatsamhitā has a similar verse. Ratnamālā X. 16 and Muhūrtacintāmani IV. 9 provide that one should possess a golden ring divided into nine compart- ments, one being in the middle in which there is to be a ruby for placating the Sun, and in eight directions from the east onwards should be set in order : a diamond for placating Venus in the east, a fine pearl for the moon (in S. E ), coral for Mars (South), gomeda for Rāhu ( in S. W.), fine sapphire for Saturn ( West ), Vaidūrya (cat’s eye gem) for Ketu (N. W.), pusyarāga (topaz) for Jupiter (North), emerald for Mercury (N. E.). Such rings are worn even in these days by some people.

As in ancient times upanayana was meant for conferring on the boy the authority to study Veda and as the planet Jupiter (Guru) was identified with Bṛhaspati, the guru of the gods and the Lord of Speech, great importance was attached to the position of Jupiter. But exceptions were introduced even when Jupiter was apparently not favourable. One exception was ‘even if Jupiter be in the 8th place from the rāśi of birth or be in the sign of Lion (which is the svagrha of the Sun) or in depression (i e in Makara) or in the house of his enemy, upanayana would be auspicious if performed in Caitra when the Sun is in Pisces (which is the svagrha of Jupiter ) This exception is due to the fact that the principal time for upanayana is the 8th year from conception or birth and other conditions are of secondary importance, as the Dharmasindhu sayṣ¹⁹ Certain naksatras alone were declared to be auspicious for upana- varana of dvijas viz on the naksatras Hasta, Citrā, Svāti, Pusya, Dhanisthā, Revati, Aśvini, Mrgaśiras, Punarvasu and Śravana; upanayana was to be performed on a commended tithi when the Moon is powerful (i e from 5th of bright half to the 5th of the dark half ) ²⁰

Very intricate astrological rules are provided for marriage. The Āśv. gr. S. (I. 4. 1-2) laid down a very simple rule about The proper times for four Saṁskāras which has been quoted above (p. 536 note 778). The Bauḍ gr. (I 1. 18-20) provides that marriage may be celebrated in all months, that according to some, the months of Āsādha, Māgha and Phālguna are to be avoided and that the auspicious nakṣatras for marriage are Rohini, Mṛgaśīrṣa, Uttarā-Phālguni and Svāti (vide notes 726 and 777 above). The Āp gr. (I 2. 12-13) is to the same effect as to months (vide note 775). The Kauśikasūtra ⁹²⁴ (75. 2-4) approaches medieval and modern practice as it prescribes that marriage should be celebrated after the Full Moon of Kārtika up to the Full moon of Vaiśākha or one may do as one likes but one should avoid the month or half month of Caitra. In medieval and modern times there was some difference of opinioṇ The Rājamārtaṇḍa (that devotes over 150 verses to the treatment of marriage) allowed all months for marriage except Caitra and Pauṣa ⁹²⁵ But works like the Dharmasindhu say that the months of Māgha, Phālguna, Vaiśākha and Jyeṣṭha are auspicious, Mṛgaśīrṣa is middling and in some works Āṣādha and Kārtika are allowed and that usages of the country should be followeḍ

Then consideration is to be given to the nakṣatras, the week days, the positions of the planets, particularly Jupiter, Venus, Sun and Mooṇ But before doing so I would like to draw the attention of modern sticklers for astrological requirements about the marriage of a girl to the practical advice and wise words of the Rājamārtaṇḍa and Bhujabala composed in the first half of the 11th century A. D. The Rājamārtaṇḍa ⁹²⁶ says ‘when (an invading) king has seized a country or when war is raging or when the life of the parents is in danger, a maiden who is very much grown up is not to wait for an (auspicious) time; when a maiden is very much grown up, but does not act against the rules of dharma she should be given in marriage, even though she is impure, without minding whether the Moon and the lagna are powerful’. The Bhujabala²⁵ (or Bhujabalabhima) provides that in the case of maidens the auspiciousness of planets and of the year, the month, ayana, season and days is to be considered only before maidens reach the age of ten years’.

There is some difference of opinion about the auspicious nakṣatras for marriage, but all are agreed as to Rohiṇī, Mrgaśiras, Maghā, Uttarā-Phālguni, Uttarāśāḍhā, Uttarābhadrapada, Hasta, Svātī, Mūla, Anurādhā, Revatī (vide Br. Citrā, Śravaṇa, Dhaniṣṭhā. But if any one of these is in conjunction with a malefic planet, it should be avoideḍ Among weekdays, Monday, Wednesday, Thursday and Friday are auspicious, the other three are middling. According to a verse quoted in Jyotiśattatva weekdays have no force at night and particularly Tuesday, Saturday and Sunday.²⁶ Among tithis amāvāsyā is forbidden; ṛktā tithis (4th, 9th, 14th) yield little good, the other tithis yield much good; the bright half of a month is the best and the dark half of a month upto 13th tithi is middling.

Marriage²⁷ in the case of maidens should be performed in even years after the 6th year if Jupiter is auspicious; in the case of bridegrooms marriage is auspicious (in uneven years), if the Sun is auspicious; marriage is auspicious to both if the Moon is beneficent If Jupiter is in exaltation²⁸ or in its own house or in the house of a friendly planet then he confers full life, various kinds of wealth and happiness, but if Jupiter is in the first or 8th or is depressed or in the house of an enemical planet or lost in the brilliance of the Sun he produces widowhood and distress to the issue. As regards the lagna at the time of marriage the Sun in the 3rd, 6th, 8th from it, the Moon in the 2nd, 3rd or 4th place from it, Mars in the 3rd and 6th, Mercury and Jupiter in the 8th and 12th are to be avoideḍ If Venus is in the lagna or in the 2nd, 4th, 5th, 9th or 10th place from it, Saturn, Rāhu and Ketu in 3rd, 6th and 8th from it and every planet in the 11th place from lagna conduces to happiness in marriage. If at the time of marriage Jupiter²⁹ is 2nd, 5th, 7th, 9th, 11th from the rāśi of birth he is auspicious to the maiden; if in 1st, 3rd, 6th or 10th place therefrom, he becomes beneficent by performing a śānti rite; if he is 4th, 8th or 12th he is inauspi cious: but if Jupiter is (at the time of marriage) in Karka, Dhanus or Mina, he ceases to be inauspicious even though he may be in the 4th, 8th or 12th place (from rāśi of birth); in a time of pressing difficulty Jupiter though in the 4th or 12th becomes auspicious after performing two śāntis (Bṛhaspati homas) and though in the 8th after three śāntiṣ In the case of the bridegroom the Sun in the 3rd, 6th, 10th or 11th rāśi from the bridegroom's rāśi at birth is auspicious; if in other rāśis the Sun becomes auspicious after the performance of a homa.

If a maiden³⁰ has attained the age of puberty then one should not stop to consider whether Jupiter is auspicious; even if Jupiter be 8th from the girl's rāśi of birth marriage should be brought about after three śāntiṣ

If Jupiter be in the house of the Sun (i. e. in Simha sign) and the Sun is in the house of Jupiter (i. e in Mina or Dhanus) that is called Gurvāditya, which is condemned for all riteṣ A good deal is said in the medieval works on Simhastha Guru and the rules laid down on this topic are even now observed by most people. The Rājamārtaṇḍa devotes six verses to it. When Jupiter is in the sign Lion several rites would become inauspicious such as marching on an invasion, marriage, upanayana, first entrance in a newly built house, the establishment of the image of a goḍ Certain modifications were introduced by sageṣ Parāśara provided that no marriage should be performed in the countries between the Ganges and the Godāvarī, when Jupiter is in Lion sign and that when Jupiter was in Maghā nakṣatra (the first of the 2¼ nakṣatras of Simha ) and when the Sun was in Mīna no marriage in all the countries (of India) should take place; Vasiṣṭha said ‘marriage and Upanayana are not bad in Simhastha Guru when performed in a country north of the Ganges and to the south of the Godāvarī.³¹

On account of the complicated nature of the muhūrta for marriage, a short cut was hit upon called Godhūli or Gorajas (literally, dust raised by cows) muhūrta. The Rājamārtaṇḍa devotes ten verses to it (folios 34b and 35a, verses 550–559). Three of them are set out here.³² ‘While the Sun, though takes saffron or red sandalwood paste, while the stars in the sky are not seen to sparkle with their light, while the sky is filled with the dust pounded by cows (returning to their pens) with the tips of their hoofs, that time is declared to be Godhūlika, which gives rise to wealth and crops and prosperity. In this muhūrta the planets, the tithis, Viṣṭi or stars or constel- lations do not create an obstacle; this unimpeded yoga was declared by Bhārgava as time for marriage and for starting on an invasioṇ When no other auspicious lagna can be found then sages direct that Godhūlikā (muhūrta) is auspicious; but if a lagna which is auspicious and powerful can be found the Godhūlikā muhūrta does not bring about auspicious resultṣ The Dharmaśindhu (p. 254) simply quotes the Muhūrta-mārtaṇḍa IV. 38, which says that this muhūrta is intended for śūdras, but that in times of great difficulty when the girl has reached puberty it may be auspicious also for brāhmaṇas and persons of other varņaṣ In these days also this Gorajas muhūrta is sometimes resorted to by all varņaṣ

There are other complicated astrological matters for consideration in marriage such as Daśayogacakra (R. M. folios 35b-36b), Saptaśalākācakra (R. M. folio 36b-37b), which are passed over here. But there in one matter that is sometimes gone into even now and that must be briefly alluded to, viz. the calculation of the guṇas (marks) on the comparison of eight matters concerning the nakṣatra and rāśi on which the intending bride and bridegroom were born This is designated ‘vadhū-varamelakavicāra’ or ‘ghaṭitaguṇavicāra’ The eight matters (kūtas as they are called) are varṇa, vaśya, tārā, yoni, grāhamaitrī, gaṇamaitrī, rāśikūṭa and nādī,³³ varṇa carrying one mark, each succeeding one having one more mark (in all 36) than the one immediately preceding All of them are not described even in the latest works; for example, the Dharmaśindhu deals only with the last four. Two of these, viz gana and nādī are attached great importance even now among brāhmaṇas and other classes also. I have described these two in H of Dh. vol II p 515. All these eight are described at length in Muhūrtamārtaṇḍa (IV. 1-12) and Muhūrta-cintāmaṇi (VI. 21-35), Saṁskāraprakāśa (part of Viramitrodaya) pp 773ff and Saṁskāra-ratna-mālā pp. 519ff. One³⁴ rule made matters easy in some cases, viz when the rāśi of birth of both bride and bridegroom was the same, but the nakṣatras of their birth were different or where the nakṣatra was the same but the rāśis were different, then no consideration need be paid to gana and nūdi and the like and if the nakṣatra of both is one and the same it would be auspicious if they were born on different quarters of the same nakṣatra. Now that in most educated families the age of the bride and bridegroom is twenty years and beyond and there are also love marriages the rigours of this examination of astrological details have been very much reduced, but they are not completely gone even now. In the author's youth nearly sixty years ago, even if the girl was quite eligible from all other points of view, a marriage among the well-to-do classes was almost impossible if this tallying of marks was not astrologically favourable.

Great importance was attached to the favourable position of Jupiter in the case of marriageṣ The Ratnamālā³⁵ states 'Mercury that could be seen ( being a good deal away from the Sun ) and occupying the 1st, 4th or 10th place in the horoscope removes one hundred astrological defects; Venus removes double of such defects and the teacher of the gods ( Jupiter ) when powerful certainly renders nugatory even one hundred thousand defects'.

In marriages both candrabala and tārābala were requireḍ As stated in note 772 above the 3rd, 5th and 7th nakṣatras from the nakṣatra of birth were called respectively 'vipād ( calamity ), 'pratyarī' ( facing enemy ) and 'vadha' ( destruction ) and they yielded results in consonance with their names; therefore they were to be avoided in auspicious rites and particularly in marriage. The nakṣatras from that of birth were arranged in three groups of nine. In the 2nd group the evil ones would be 12th, 14th and 16th and in the 3rd group 21st, 23rd and 25th. It was laid down that, where the Moon³⁶ is powerful, the tārābala need not be considered, but where the Moon is weak ( as in the dark half ), then the strength of tārās is pre-eminent. Some authors regarded even the nakṣatra of birth as one to be avoided in certain rites, though acceptable in otherṣ The evil tārās called 'vipād', 'pratyarī' and 'vadha' were to be placated respectively by gifts to brāhmaṇas of jaggery, salt, and gold with sesame. In relation to marriage the Rājamārtaṇḍa³⁷ says: tithi is declared to have a single value while weekday is four times as good, nakṣatra is 16 times better, yoga has a hundredfold result, the Sun is a thousandfold efficacious, while the Moon is effica-cious one hundred thousand times; therefore leaving aside all other balās (astrological strengths) one should look to the strength of the Moon as (the pre-eminent) strength.

Now that in most countries including India the kingly office has been abolished, muhūrtas for coronation are of purely academic interest and therefore they are not set out here. Those interested may refer to Ratnamālā XIV. 1-8, Muhūrtamārtaṇḍa VIII. 1, Muhūrta-ciṅtāmaṇi X. 1-4, Rājanītiīratnākara pp. 82-84 (eḍ by K. P. Jayaswal)

One very important astrological subject was Yātrā, which has two meanings, viz. starting on a journey for going to tīrthas or for earning wealth and marching out for victory by kingṣ The first kind of yātrā is common to persons of all varṇas, while the second is concerned only with kṣatriyas or the king.³⁸ It appears that not only professed works on astrology but also the Smṛtis, the Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya and Purāṇas attached great importance to this subject. The Āśramavāsikaparva³⁹ 7 12-18, Manu VII. 181-212, Matsya 240-243, Agni 233-235, Viṣṇu-dharmottara II. 175-176, the Arthaśāstra in books IX (‘the work of one who wants to be an invader’) and X (relating to war) deal exhaustively with the subject of Yāna or Yātrā. The subjects of Yātrā are summarised in the Bṛhat-saṃhitā as follows⁴⁰ . Under Yātrā are included knowledge of proper tithis, week days, karanas, nakṣatras, muhūrtas, the vilagna (the lagna at the time of starting), the (different) yogas (con-junctions of planets, nakṣatras, rāśis &c.), the throbbings of the limbs of the body, dreams, baths for victory, sacrifice to the planets, worship of deities in groups (such as Guhyakas), the indications derived from fire-flames (at the time of homa), the indications derived from the gestures of elephants and horses, the talk of men in the army and its activities, the (nine) planets, the employment of six guṇas (sandhi, vigraha, yāna, āsana, dvadhibhāva, āśraya) according to the strength of planets, auspicious and inauspicious things and sights, the four upāyas (sāma, dāna, daṇḍa, bheda), śakunas (omens), the ground for army encampment, the colour of the flames of fire, the employ-ment as time may require of ministers, spies, envoys, forest tribes and means of securing the enemy's fortṣ

Varāhamihira, besides devoting several chapters of the Bṛhatsamhitā (such as 43-50, 88-96) to matters falling under ‘Yātrā’ composed three works on it, viz. the Bṛhadyogayātrā, the Yogayātrā and Tikkanika.⁴¹ Apart from the verses in the Bṛhatsamhitā, Varāhamihira devotes over 1100 verses to Yātrā. Yātrā is dealt with in several other works also such as the Ratna-mālā (XV. 1-74), Rājamārtaṇḍa (folios 42a-50a, verses 653-795), the Muhūrtacintāmaṇi (XI. 1-109). The reason why the work is called Yogayātrā is as follows: When a war⁴² is impending, to look out and wait for auspicious tithis, week-days, nakṣatras would involve a great delay. Therefore, the conjunctions and positions of certain planets in some fixed places (i.e. yoga) is looked upon as the principal astrological matter. The Yogayātrā and Ratnamālā say:⁴³ Just as even a poison may work like nectar when mixed (with other substances like milk) or just as even honey taken with ghee may act like poison, in the same way a planet giving up its own peculiar power yields results due to certain conjunctionṣ Kings march out on conjunctions, thieves and bards act on śakunas, brāhmaṇas act on the efficacy of nakṣatras, others (than these) secure their objects on the strength of muhūrtaṣ

In Bṛhaj-jātaka (28.3) Varāha declares that he will enumerate the topics concerning Yātrā⁴⁴ and verses 4-5 specify th topics, which agree in the main as to names of titles and their order with those in the Bṛhad-yogayātrā chapters II-XX and not with those of the Yogayātrā. All these works cover a very wide field and deal with many subjects that are not strictly astrological (as the quotation from the Bṛhatsaṁhitā cited above in note 942 will show). Even the purely astrological material runs into hundreds of verses and all that can be attempted here is to indicate very briefly some of the material.

If a person's rising sign at birth (lagna) is not known, then the lagna at the time of asking a question about Yātrā may be used for astrological purposeṣ If such a lagna is either Meṣa, Karka, Tulā or Makara and is occupied by auspicious planets or has an auspicious aspect with any of them, then the questioner becomes successful in his undertaking; but if the lagna, whatever it may be, is occupied by Mars and the Moon or if the Moon is aspected by Saturn or is in the 7th or 8th place and the Sun is in lagna or a malefic planet occupies the lagna or the 4th, 7th or 8th place, then in all these cases the questioner would be defeated or destroyed (by his enemies)⁴⁵ The week-days were regarded as not of much importance in Yātrā. The 6th, 8th, 12th tithi, Full Moon tithi, amāvāsyā, rikta tithi (4th, 9th, 14th) and the first of the bright half were not commended for Yātrā (the rest were commended) and yātrā was commended on nine nakşatras, viz. on Aśvinī, Punarvasu, Anurādhā, Mṛgaśiras, Puşya, Revatī, Hasta, Śravaṇa and Dhanişṭhā The Yogayātrā IV, Rāja-mārtanda (verses 695-752 ), Ratnamālā XV verses 1-74, Muhūrtacintāmaņi XI. 55-74 furnish numerous conjunctions that would make a king successful A few are set out here by way of sample That king that has at the time of marching on an expedition Jupiter in the lagna, Mercury and Venus respec tively in 4th and 5th places, Mars and Saturn in 6th, the Sun in the 3rd and the Moon in the 10th secures the complete fruit of what he desires ⁴⁶, (the king is victorious) if Jupiter is in the lagna and no other planets are in the 2nd and 11th places, ⁴⁷ when at the time of marching the king has Venus, Mercury and the Sun respectively in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd places his enemies fall into the fire of battle like moths, ⁴⁸ when Venus occupies either the 4th, 3rd or 11th house, if he has an aspect with Jupiter that is in a kendra (1st, 4th, 7th or 10th house) and the malefic planets are in places other than the 7th, 8th or 9th place such a conjunc tion procures for the king heaps of wealth (and victory )⁴⁹ Certain other astrological matters may be alluded to here. Rainfall in the four months from Pausa is called unseasonable; one should avoid vrata and yātrā for seven days thereafter; unseasonable rainfall does not create any defects to a king (starting on an invasion) if the ground is not (so muddy as to be) marked with the soiled footprints of men and beastṣ⁵⁰ The Muhūrtacintāmaṇi says⁵¹ 'one (the king) should not start as long as the periods of upanayana rite, the establishment of an image, marriage, festivals (like hokkā) and impurity (on birth or death) have not come to an end and for seven days after unseasonable flashes of lightning, clouds, fall of rain or snow'.

Going out of the house on the 9th tithi from the tithi of entrance, or entering a house on the 9th tithi after the tithi of leaving it and the 9th tithi itself are prohibited and the same applies to week-day and nakṣatra also.⁵²

One should avoid starting in such a way as to face Venuṣ This belief is very old as the Śāntiparva and Kālidāsa refer to it.⁵³ If the king or any one else has decided on a very auspicious day and conjunction for marching out, but some unforeseen or urgent business prevents him from actually going, he should arrange for what is called prasthāna (starting, but returning after going a very short distance or sending forward something on the auspicious day and starting within a certain number of days thereafter) A brāhmaṇa should⁵⁴ send out a sacred thread, (a kṣatriya) a weapon, vaiśya should send honey and a śūdra should send out a pure fruit (like cocoanut) or anyone of whatever varṇa may send whatever is dear to his heart. The sages differed as to the distance one should proceed for prasthāna and then returṇ Gārgya⁵⁵ said that he may proceed from his own house to another house (though very near), Bhrgu holds that one should leave the boundaries of one's village and stay in another village, Bharadvāja provides that one may go as far as an arrow may be discharged and Vasiṣṭha says he must go out of the city The prasthāna should be made in the direction in which one intended to proceeḍ If the king resorts to prasthāna he cannot stay in one place for ten days (i e he may stay nine days), a feudatory chief not for seven days and any other ordinary person not for five days and if a person stays beyond these limits he can only start again on a fresh good muhūrta.⁵⁶ Even in modern times some people resort to this method of prasthāna and generally it is a friendly neighbour's house where the bundle of substances (some rice, betelnut, turmeric &c.) is kept and taken away when actually starting on a journey.

The Yogayātrā XIII 3 provides that a king when starting on an expedition should see, hear and touch mangalas and enumerates them in verses 4-6, 10-15 at length. A few of them are noted here. Auspicious sounds are those of the recitations of the Veda and the auxiliary lores of the Veda, of conches, drums, of words like ‘punyāha’ (it is a holy day) and of the purāṇas dharmaśāstras, Arthasāstras, the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa; the auspicious chiripings of cranes, cāsa, peacocks, swans and jīvajīvika (partridge), crows sitting on the backs of tortoises marked with mud; auspicious objects are the bilva tree chownes, sandalwood, cow with calf, a goat, priyangu creeper fried grains, a chariot filled with men; banners, sarvausadhi svastika sign, vessels filled with presents, horse, undried ginger full of water, turban, lute, umbrella, curds, honey, ghee, yellow pigment, maiden, flagstaff, gold, lotus, conch, white ox, flowers fine clothes, fish, well-dressed brāhmaṇas, street walkers, and dancing girls, fire in flames, elephants, wet earth, goad, weapons various precious stones such as emerald, ruby, crystal; a young woman accompanied by her son; these signs and objects soul bo arranged for or they may present themselves spontaneously. The Agnipurāṇa chap. 243, Ratnamālā XV. 97–98, Muhūrta-mārtanda VII. 15–16, 20 and several others contain similar long lists of auspicious and inauspicious matters on a king's of auspicious and inauspicious sights, persons, animals and substances are furnished by the Br. S chapters 86–96 (expressly based upon the works of Rsabha, Bhāguri, Devala, Bhāradvāja and authors on yātrā like Garga dealing with śakunas of all kinds, including barking of dogs, chirping of birds and crows), the Brhadyogayātrā chapters 21–28 dealing with omens derived from the movements of elephants, horses, the cries of she-jackals, crows &c, the Yogayātrā XIII. 14, Muhūrtacintāmani XI. 99–100, Muhūrtamārtanda VII. 17–19, Rājanitiprakāśa pp 335–360 and other workṣ As an illustration only one verse from the Yogayātrā is ⁵⁷ translated here The following are inauspi-cious ( on Yātrā )- cotton, herbs and drugs, black corn, salt, an impotent person, bones, orpiment, fire, serpent, coals, poison, vomitod or is mad or paralysed or blind, grass, husk, a famished person, butter milk, an enemy, one whose head is completely shaved, one whose body is anointed with oil, one with hair dishevelled, a sinner, one wearing reddish garments

The construction of a house (vāstu) is a very important matter even in the grhya and dharma-sūtraṣ Construction of a house and the first entrance into it have been described in the H. of Dh. vol. II pp. 833–836 but the astrological requirements were not illustrated there. The Paraskara-grhya⁵⁸ simply provides that the construction of a house should be begun on an auspicious day. The Hiranyakeśigrlya is more specific and says that a shed or house should be begun after kindling fire in the northward passage of the Sun, in the fortnight of the waxing moon, on the nakşatras of Rohini or the three Uttarās, viz. Uttarā Phalguni, Uttarāsāḍhā and Uttarābhādrapada. The Matsyapurāṇa chap. 253, Ratnamālā chap. 17, Rājamārtaṇḍa verses 805-884 (folio 51b-55b), Hemādri on Kāla pp. 817-829, Muhūrtadarśana IX, Jyotistattva pp. 662-670, Muhūrtacintāmaṇi XII, 1-29, Nirṇayasindhu p. 364 deal with the construction of a house Matsya (252 2-4) names eighteen teachers of Vāstuśāstra. A few astrological details are set out here. Matsya (253 1-5) states the results of beginning the construction of a house in the twelve months from Caitra respectively as disease, fine cows, death, good servants and plenty of cattle ( in Āsādha ), servants, loss, wife's death, wealth and crops ( in Kārtika ), rice, danger from thieves, various benefits, gold and son (in Phālguna). The auspicious nakṣatras for commencing a house are Aśvinī, Rohiṇī, Mūla, the three Uttarās, Mṛgaśiras, Svāti, Hasta and Anurādhā and all weekdays ( except Sunday and Tuesday ) are auspicious (Matsya 253. 6-7) The Rājamārtaṇḍa²¹ puts many of the astrological requirements in two verses as follows; ‘the sages say that the auspicious work of ( constructing ) a house should be begun on the auspicious nakṣatras of Punarvasu, Puṣya, Rohiṇī, Mṛgaśiras, Citrā, Dhaniṣṭhā, Uttarā ( three of them ), Revati, Śravaṇa, Śatabhiṣak, Anurādhā, Svāti endowed with auspicious tārās, on Monday, Wednesday, Thursday or Friday, on an auspicious Yoga, on a tithi other than riktā ( 1, 6, 4th, 9th, 14th) and on a day when there is no Visti, when beneficial planets occupy the kendra (1st, 4th, 7th and 10th places ), the 8th and 12th places, when malefic planets occupy the third, 6th and 11th places, when Jupiter is in the lagna or kendra, or Venus occupies any of these latter and when the rāsī of the owner is auspicious, and when any of the sthira nakṣatras are rising, one should commence a house or make the first entrance into it. The Ratnamālā says that the construction of a house should not be begun on caru rāśiṣ There are several other complicated calculations and diagrams employed in finding out a proper time for beginning the construction of a house such as āya, vyaya and Rāhumukhacakra that are passed over here. It is stated in the Rājamārtaṇḍa verse 887 (quoted in note 961) that the same astrological conditions are required in the case of the first entrance into a newly built house as in commencing to build a house. Vide Rājamārtaṇḍa (folio 57 verses 900-908), Ratnamālā XVIII. 1-11, Jyotiṣtattva pp 670-71, Muhūrtacintāmaṇi XIII, Nirṇayasindhu p. 366 for rules about gṛha-praveśa (first entrance into a house). The Rājamārtaṇḍa says that ⁶⁰ first entrance into a newly built house should be made on the nakṣatras Revatī, Dhaniṣṭhā, Śatabhiṣak, Rohiṇī, the three Uttarās, on an auspicious week-day, when the moon is not weak, on a tithi other than ṛktā. He should enter the house on the floor of which plenty of flowers are strewn, which has good ornamental arches, which is adorned with jars filled with water, in which the gods have been worshipped with sandalwood paste, flowers and offerings and which rings with the recitation of (the Vedas by) brāhmaṇas

It may be stated here that some of the astrological require-ments about the construction of a house and the first entrance into a newly built house are observed even now.

The proper times for the establishment of the images of gods are specified in many works such as Bṛhatsaṁhitā 60. 20-21, Matsya-purāṇa (264), Viṣṇudharmottara III. 96, Rājamārtaṇḍa (folios 57b-59b, verses 909-943), Hemādri on Kāla pp 830-847, Jyotiṣtattva pp 666-667 and 672-73, Nirṇayasindhu pp. 334-335, Dharmasindhu p 318. The Bṛhatsaṁhitā ⁶¹ lays down the general rules for the establishment of the images of all godṣ In the northward passage of the sun, in the bright half, when the moon is in the varga of Jupiter, when the lagna is a sthira rāśi and the navamāṁśa rāśi of the lagna is sthira and beneficent planets occupy the kendra places or the 5th and 9th places in the horoscope (of the established), when the malefic planets are in the 3rd, 6th, 10th or 11th places, on nakṣatras called dhruva or mṛdu or on Śravana, Pusya or Svāti nakṣatra, on a favourable week day (other than Tuesday) the establishment of the images of gods is commendeḍ The Matsya states (264. 3-12) that the establishment (pratiṣṭhā) of the images of all gods leads to beneficent results when done in the months of Caitra, Vaiśākha, Jyestha, Māgha or Phālguna, in the bright fortnight after daksināyana ends, on the tithis 2nd, 3rd, 5th, 7th, 10th, Full moon, 13th (this is the best), on sixteen named nakṣatras (excepting Bharani, Kṛttikā, Ārdrā, Punarvasu, Āśleṣa, Magha, Pūrvā-phālguni, Citrā, Viśākhā, Dhaniṣṭhā, Śatatārākā), when the lagna has an aspect with the three beneficent planets Mercury, Jupiter and Venus, on an auspicious yoga, when the lagna or nakṣatra (of established) is free from malefic planets and on brāhma muhūrta.

The Ratnamālā⁶² provides different nakṣatras for the establishment of the images of different gods, one interesting provision being that the image of Buddha was to be established on Śravana nakṣatra. In the case of the images of the Mātṛs, Bhairava, the Varāha, Narasimha and Trivikrama incarnations and of Devi, the killer of Mahiṣāsura, establishment may be made even in Dakṣiṇāyana. For the establishment of Linga special rules are provided for which Nirṇayasindhu (pp. 335-336) may be consulteḍ

The Rājamārtaṇḍa⁶³ provides that the 2nd, 3rd, 10th, 13th and 15th tithis are always commended for establishment of images of gods and even the 7th and 6th if the established likeṣ

In the Indian Antiquary vol. VI. p. 363 we find an inscri- tion of Cālukya king Mangalīśa dated śaka 500 (578-79 A. D.) recording the grant of a village named Lañjīśvara on the auspicious occasion of the establishment of an image of god Viṣṇu.⁶⁴ Auspicious times were prescribed for wearing new garments for the first time The Nirṇayasindhu quotes two verses²⁸⁶ 'It is desirable to put on new garments for the first time on nakṣatras of Aśvinī, the three Uttarās, Punarvasu, Puṣya, Revati, Dhaniṣṭhā. The following are the consequences of wearing new garments for the first time on the week days from Sunday respectively, viz becoming worn out, constantly wet with water, sorrow, wealth, knowledge, meeting with one's dear ones, the woman who wears new garments or new ornaments for the first time on Rohiṇī, Puṣya, Punarvasu, Uttarā-Phālgunī and takes a bath on Śatatārakā nakṣatra does not stay with her husband (i e. she leaves him) If a woman wears for the first time a garment dyed with Kusumbha (safflower) or ornaments of gold, precious stones, coral, glass, conch-shell on Revati, Aśvinī, Dhaniṣṭhā, Hasta, Citrā, Anurādhā, that leads to male progeny, wealth and happiness, but if she puts on these on Rohiṇī, the three Uttarās, Punarvasu and Puṣya, that leads to the unhappiness of the husbanḍ

Muhūrtas are prescribed for beginning to take medicine in Rājamārtaṇḍa (folio 62a, verses 973 ff), Jyotiṣtattva pp 678 ff, Nirṇayasindhu p 362. Only one verse is cited ²⁸⁷ here; 'If one begins to take medicine on the nakṣatras Mūla, Anurādhā, Mrgaśiras, Puṣya, Punarvasu, Revati, Aśvinī, Śravaṇa, Jyeṣṭhā, Hasta, Citrā, Svāti, and on Monday, Thursday, or Friday, that would benefit the patient. Medieval works like the Rājamārtaṇḍa, Bhujabala, Muhūrta-mārtaṇḍa, Jyotiṣtattva, Nirṇayasindhu describe the muhūrtas and inauspicious times for all matters under the sun (not necessarily religious) such as for purchase and sale of merchandise and animals, for agricultural operations, for planting trees, for digging tanks and wells, for oil bath, for baths with ground myrobalans &c

The foregoing discussion about the astrological requirements in several religious and secular matters are enough to show how astrology and omens have had a very firm hold on the minds of Indians for the last two thousand years or more. With regard to favourable and unfavourable omens Varāhamihira himself says 'If all favourable and unfavourable signs⁶⁷ were on one side and on the other side there is purity of heart, it is the latter that brings success' or 'on one side all omens, on the other the purity of the mind (it is the mind that counts), in a battle the mind may be suddenly seized with fear and even the wind may be the cause of victory or defeat'. The Matsyapurāṇa after mentioning unusual occurrences and omens in connection with the march of a king on an invasion winds up as follows;⁶⁸ 'Auspicious planets are commended, particularly Jupiter (as indicative of future success). Belief in god, faith, honouring those that deserve honour—all these are commended and whatever else may be approved by one's conscience. In this matter (of invasion) the peace of the mind is the highest indication of (coming) success, when all omens are on one side and the mind's peace on the other'. A purely astrological work like the Ratnamāla⁶⁹ of Śrīpati says the same thing.

Owing to the almost universal belief in astrology, there was always the temptation to fasten fanciful horoscopes on renowned avatāras and heroes Some Msṣ of the Rāmāyaṇa⁷⁰ contain a few details of the horoscope of Rāma, the principal ones being that the lagna was Karkata, in which the Moon and Jupiter were in conjunction and that five planets were in exaltation (ucca) As the Moon was in Cancer, that planet was not in exaltation, since Taurus (Bull) is exaltation of the Mooṇ As Rāma was born on Caitra bright half 9th the Sun was in Meṣa (Aries, Ram), which is also the ucca of the Suṇ Therefore, Mercury must be either in conjunction with the Sun or in Taurus or Pisceṣ None of those is the ucca of Mercury. Probably Mercury should be taken to be with Venus as they are friends, while if Mercury be placed in Vṛṣabha (Taurus or Bull) he would be in the house of an enemy. The Rāmāyaṇa does not mention Rāhu and Ketu at all. So the horoscope of Rāma would be as follows : ⁷¹

Vide Pillai's 'Indian Ephemeris' vol. I part 1 pp 112-123 for discussion on Rāma's horoscope. Kālidāsa in the Raghuvamśa (III. 13) states that Raghu, the ancestor of Rāma, was born when five planets were in exaltation and were not setting (i e were a good many degrees away from the Sun) But he does not furnish the lagna nor even the month of his birth.

As regards Paraśurāma, the Nrnayasindhu quotes the Bhārgavārcanadīpikā⁷² to the effect that Viṣṇu himself was born as the son of Reṇukā on Vaiśākha, bright half, 3rd tithi, on Punarvasu nakṣatra in the first quarter of the night, when six planets were in exaltation and Rāhu was in Mithuna ( Gemini, Twins ). The Moon being in Punarvasu, that is either in Mithuna or Karkata, none of which is Moon's ucca all the remaining six planets must be held to be in exaltatioṇ There-fore, Paraśurāma's horoscope must be supposed to be somewhat like this • This horoscope cannot be right. The ucca signs of the Sun and Mercury are Mesa (Aries) and Kanyā (Virgo) respectively. Mercury cannot be so far away from the Suṇ So this is only a fancy horoscope without any reality behind it.

Coming to historical times, Bāṇabhaṭṭa⁷³ in the Harsacarit (4th Ucchvāsa) tells us that Harsa was born on the 12th of the dark half of the month of Jyestha, on Kṛttikā nakṣatra, at nightfall when all the planets were in exaltatioṇ But Bāṇa is delightfully vague about the name of the lagna and it is not clear what he means by 'all planets' being in exaltatioṇ By the end of Jyestha the Sun cannot be in Mesa, which is the ucca of the Sun, but may be in Vṛṣabha or Mithuna.

The commentary Sudhāvidyotini⁷⁴ on the Saundaryalaharī, a work attributed to the great philosopher Śaṅkarācārya, furnishes a horoscope of Śaṅkarācārya, viz. the lagna was Simha (Leo), Jupiter in Piśes, Sun in Ram, Mercury was in Mithuna, Venus in Fishes, Saturn in Aquarius, Mars in Capricornus, Moon swallowed by Rāhu (there was an eclipse) and in Hasta Citrā (either in Kanyā or Tulā). This horoscope also seems to be a fancy one, since Mercury cannot be in Mithuna when Sun is in Mesa. Kalhana⁷⁵ in the Rājatarangini says that king Harsa of Kashmir (born 1059 A.D., ruled 1089-1101 A.D) was born on the Karkata lagna when Mars and Saturn were in the 5th house, Jupiter and Mercury in the 6th, Venus and the Sun in the 7th and the Moon in the 10th, that like Duryodhana he caused the extinction of his family as the astrological conjunction at his birth indicated and as the authors of Samhitas declared that Kauravas destroyed their families because in their horoscopes the Moon, Venus and malefic planets were in the 10th, 7th and 5th houseṣ This horoscope may be true, as Kalhana wrote only about fifty years after Harsa's death.

Some inscriptions show that kings rewarded men for astrological deviceṣ For example, the Kadaba plates of the Rastrakūta king Prabhūtavarsa Govindarāja III granted in śaka 735 to a Jain Munī the village of Jālamangala for having warded off the evil influence of Saturn from Vimalāditya, one of his governors ⁷⁶.

Some of the previous volumes of this History of Dharma-śāstra have been criticized in two different ways by critics Some said that the author should have stopped at describing what transformations several of the topics dealt with underwent in the course of centuries and that no personal opinions should have been expressed about what changes should be made in the present or in future Another set of scholars complained that the author should have expressed his personal views in many matters on which he expresses no definite opinion or does not advance a definite theory of his owṇ Bearing in mind these criticisms the author proposes to indicate his own personal views on Indian Astrology in relation to dharmaśāstra.

Modern scientists, philosophers and theologians have gene-rally ignored astrology. Some ridicule it, some have condemned it as superstitious, as 'a delusion and a snare'. In spite of the condemnation by eminent scientists astrology enjoys great vogue among millions of people in the educated West. Many of those who condemned it in scathing terms appear to have done so on a priori arguments and do not appear to have studieḍ astrological workṣ The more effective method would perhaps have been to study the horoscopes of well-known persons, to examine them by the rules of the astrologers themselves, to show that the application of their own rules leads to contradictions, confusion and absurd results and lastly to exhibit that the principles on which they evolve their rules and make their predictions have hardly any basis in fact and are imaginary.

The fundamental doctrine of astrology that the Sun, the Moon and the planets exert some influence on terrestrial life and things is scientific ⁷⁷ The matter to be considered is whether the principles laid down in such astrological works as the Bṛhajātaka can stand rational analysis and testṣ The author may state here that in his boyhood there was an astrologer called Mahādkar Jyotishi who never took money, who was employed as a bailiff in a civil court in the Bombay State and who correctly stated the lagna and the positions of the planets in the horoscopes of people by looking for a few minutes at their faces, eyes and handṣ The percentage of his mistakes in this respect was very low, barely one to five percent. This led many educated people to believe in those days that astrological works may be right so far that the physical features of a man may have some relation to the planets and their positions at his birth But, when he set about the business of stating important facts about the lives of the persons whose horoscopes he correctly stated he often went wrong. One cannot also ignore the facts that some predictions turn out to be true. Unless one holds that they are all mere inexplicable co-incidences, they require to be carefully considered There is an astrological sanad ( grant ) which records most wonderful and detailed predictions that came out to be true. The grant was made in 1793 A D. to one Chinto Govindrao Gaikwad, a scion of the Gaikwad family that ruled in Gujarat at Baroda It recites⁷⁸ that Govindrao Gaikwad had to leave his inheritance and stayed near Poona for twenty-five years, that thereafter he consulted Chinto who was a great astrologer, and it was agreed that he should make a prediction after consulting śāstras as to when Govindrao would be able to recover his inheritance and if the prediction proved true Govindrao agreed to donate to Chinto a village yielding five thousand rupees yearly revenue The grant further recites that the astrologer gave to Govindrao a closed letter which stated that the Peshwa at Poona would call Govindrao to his presence in the first watch of Friday, 8th tithi, Mārgaśīrṣa dark half of śaka 1714 ( 7th December 1792 A. D. ) when the sign ascending would be Dhanus ( Archer ) and, after taking from Govindrao an agreement to give certain cash and to cede some territory, would restore him to his inheritance and honour him by the present of three śirpeñch ( turban ornaments or spray of gems ) containing 45 rubies and 14 diamonds ( out of which three would be large and eleven small ), one pearl crest ( containing about 496 pearls ), one elephant and one blue horse. It is further recited in that sanad that the letter stated that even after this Govindrao would have to stay for eleven months in Poona out of which he would suffer for eight months great calamities, that thereafter the Peshwa would return to Govindrao the territories he had agreed to cede, that he would then return to Baroda in the month of Māgha. The sanad in the end recites that all this that was contained in the closed letter came to be true to the very letter and therefore as agreed before the village of Ayana was donateḍ It would be noticed in what details the prediction entereḍ There is no reason to doubt the solemn words of this grant that everything as predicted came out to be true. How the astrologer pointed out all these details is not at all clear, as no astrological work that I know of, enters into such detailed predictions or gives rules for that purpose.

Just as the Sun and the Moon influence terrestrial phenomena such as the tides, the author feels from the instance of the Mahadkar Jyotishi mentioned above and from the hundreds of horoscopes that he has seen that it might be possible to state the physical characteristics of the persons concerned from their horoscopeṣ But no such efforts have been made by anybody nor published if made. The author, however, feels also that hardly anything can be said about the mental capacities of a person or the fortunes and vicissitudes of his life from his horoscope. It would not be relevant to enter into further discussion of this matter in this work.

What firm grip astrological considerations had on the minds of people and writers on astrology is demonstrated by certain rules in astrological works about a child's birth on Āśleṣā or Jyeṣṭhā nakṣatra or on what is called Gaṇḍa or Gaṇḍānta and how it was recommended that the innocent and helpless infant born on these supposed very unlucky times should be abandoned in spite of what love and pity should dictate. We have seen above that the roots of this belief go back to the Atharvaveda (vide note 753 above). Some verses are translated here. Garga quoted in Prayogapārijāta⁷⁹ prescribes ‘a child born on Gandānta by day causes the father’s death, one born in the night on Gandānta causes the mother’s death and one born at twilight causes its own death; no Ganda is safe (free from danger). Abandonment of children born on Ganda is laid down or (the father) should avoid seeing it or hearing its cry for six months’. Bhallāṭa⁸⁰ provides ‘a child born during the period of the last ghaṭikā of Jyesṭhā and the first two ghaṭikās of Mūla should be abandoned or the father should not see its face for eight years; in the case of a child born on the first quarter (of Mūla) the father dies, if born in the second quarter of Mūla the mother dies, if born in the third quarter there is loss of wealth and (birth in) the 4th quarter (of Mūla) is auspicious; the same results follow in the case of birth on Āślesā but in the reverse order from the last quarter of it.’ The author knows the case of his father’s first cousin who was born to his father when the latter was over forty years of age and when he had been long and anxiously waiting for a son, that was born on an unlucky quarter of Mūla nakṣatra. The astrologers recommended that the child be abandoned at the foot of a sacred tree. The father absolutely refused to accept the advice, saying that he would rather gladly die than abandon an innocent and anxiously desired soṇ The author saw the father when he had lived beyond 80, and the son also reached a pretty old age.

Ptolemy subscribed to the geocentric hypothesis and in order to account for the puzzling movements of the planets adopted the theory of eccentric orbits and epicycleṣ Though his theories viewed in the light of modern astronomical science were wrong, he and his followers could predict eclipseṣ That suggests that correct inferences may be drawn in certain cases from premises some of which may be wrong. Besides, no one appears to have examined the theory of Varāhamihira and his followers that a horoscope is only like a sketch or plan that indicates only future trends in a man's life depending on his actions in his previous life or liveṣ It is not probable that this theory will ever be tested and examineḍ There are weighty and practical reasons for thiṣ Millions of people are not at all interested in knowing what they did in their past lives nor do many of them believe in metempsychosis or the theory of past and future lives of the individual soul. They are mainly concerned with predictions about their future. The theory of horoscopes being only sketches or maps indicating future tendencies cuts the very ground from under the feet of professional astrologers They would, if they persisted only in telling their clients mere future tendencies and did not furnish positive predictions, find that their occupation was gone. In the minds of millions not only in India but in many parts of the world astrology is a living faith and it appears that neither scientists nor historians can possibly destroy such a tenaciously held and deep-seated belief. But the belief that planets cause persons to do certain things is likely to have serious consequences The sense of moral responsibility for all acts done by a person will be impaired by such a belief; and a person guilty of a crime may plead ( or may at least believe ) that he was helpless before the influence of the heavenly bodieṣ

Before closing this brief account of Indian astrology I must in a few words advert to a work called Bhrgusaṃhitā in Sanskrit which is supposed to contain numberless horoscopes with descriptions of persons born on the twelve rāśis from Meṣa onwards, references to the deeds of such persons in previous lives, the horoscope with the positions of the several planets, the important happenings in each person's present life from the year of his birth to his death. Persons who profess to have in their possession the Bhrgusaṃhitā are generally averse to showing the whole work to any one, but read to those who consult them verses from the work said to be in their possession and people feel often amazed at the accounts about themselves which are read out to them There is much of deception in this I have examined four Mss in the Desai Collection of Sanskrit mss in the Bombay University called Bhrgusaṃhitā said to have been imparted to Śukra by his father Bhrgu on mount Gandhamā- dāna which contain about 600 horoscopes each of the four lagnas, Mesa, Vrsabha, Mithuna and Karka, describing in 15 to 20 verses each of the horoscopes in the same lagna but with different positions of the planets in each case. No Bhrgusamhitā can be accommodated even in a big library if it contains descriptions of all possible horoscopes in 15 or 20 verses each. There are twelve rāśis as lagnas, 9 planets ( including Rāhu and Ketu ) and twelve bhāvaṣ By permutations and combinations of these there would be crores of possible horoscopes and if at least 15 verses were to be assigned to each there would be millions on millions of verseṣ Hence describing a horoscope by extracts from Bhrgusamhitā is often a frauḍ

In Indian Astrology the most important matters are the rāśis, the planets and the twelve bhāvas ( or places ). Take the rāśis first. What is the reason for naming certain groups of stars or constellations as Mesa or Vrsabha &c.? There are no Rams and Bulls in the sky. Some observers on the earth imagined that certain constellations presented to the eye the appearance of certain animals, human figures and mythical beingṣ As shown above ( p. 565 ) the Chinese and Japanese name them differently. Therefore, there is a great element of arbitrariness and imaginary analogies in naming the so-called rāśiṣ Once named, the rāśis are classified in various ways and predictions are based on the class to which a rāśi belongṣ All these classifications are based on ideas of symmetrical sequence and fancy. Why should Mesa and Mithuna ( which is represented as 'twins' man and woman ) be called male, while Vrsabha and Vrścika be classed as female? There is no explanation except this that the twelve rāśis had to be classified in two groups, male and female, and symmetry required that they be alternately called male and female. For the same reason of symmetrical order Mesa and Karka are grouped as cara ( mobile ), while Simha and Vrścika are classified as sthira ( firm immobile ). The Sun ( the giver of all light and support of the world ) is called krūra or pāpa ( a malefic ) planet along with Mars and Saturn, while Jupiter and Venus are classed as beneficent and the waning Moon is also held to be malefic. Here association of ideas and analogy play a great part. Jupiter and Venus are both brilliant and white or whitish, while Mars is red ( the colour of blood ). Be-sides, the first two are supposed to be the preceptors of the gods and asuras respectively. Therefore, they are beneficent and the blood-red Mars is malefic. The Sun, Jupiter and Mars are said to be masculine, the Moon and Venus feminine and Mercury and Saturn neuter for the same reason, viz. association of ideas and analogy. The Moon and Venus are beautiful and mild, therefore they are feminine, while the Sun (that has fierce heat), Mars (with blood red hue ) and Jupiter (the ācārya of the gods) are masculine. Modern astronomy declares that the Moon is dry and waterless and contains the remains of extinct volcanoes; yet if the astrologers be followed we shall have to regard the Moon as feminine. In classical Sanskrit the Moon is called 'Śaśānka'. The Japanese Moon Goddess Gwaten is drawn with a hare. Vide figure opposite p. 18 in Prof. Zinner's 'The stars above uṣ' Then we may consider the doctrines of svagrhas and uccas ( exaltations of planets ). There are twelve rāśis and seven planets; five must be given two rāśis as svagrhas and the other two only one rāśi each as svagrha. The Br J. Simha ( Lion ) and Karka ( Crab ) respectively, while two rāśis are assigned to each of the other five planetṣ There is absolu- tely no logical or satisfactory explanation of thiṣ Moreover, in assigning two rāśis as svagrhas the only principle that seems to have been followed is that of sequence, viz. one rāśi beyond Simha and one beyond Karka i. e. Kanyā and Mithuna to Mercury and in the same way to the remaining planets in the order of distance. The result is that Vrsabha and Tulā (Scales) are the svagrhas of the beautiful and brilliant planet Venus and Dhanus ( Archer ) and Mina ( Fishes ) are the svagrhas of Jupiter. If one turns to the doctrine of exaltation, no rational or astronomical explanation is given why Aja ( goat ), Vrsabha ( Bull ), Makara, Kanya, Karka, Mina and Tulā should be the uccas of the Sun, the Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus and Saturn respectively. The naming and arrangement of the twelve bhāvas hardly follows any rational basiṣ One may at the most concede that the first bhāva in which the sign rising at a person's birth is placed is plausibly called tanu ( body ) and that regarding the 7th bhāva therefrom as the one on which love and marriage may be considered has also some plausibility. Birth and death are the two ends of a person's life. If the first bhāva is called tanu, the bhāva about death should be the 12th, the last, but in the Brhaj-jātaka and other works, it is the 8th bhāva that is called mrtyu ( death ). Some of the bhāvaṣ have too many matters crowded into theṃ For example, the 4th bhāva is supposed to be the one on which a person's relatives, friends, house, happiness and conveyance are to be considered, The fifth bhāva is concerned with sons, intellect, learning, speech. Supposing that that bhāva is very favourably placed, the prognostications would have to be that the person would have many sons, he would be a learned man and a good speaker. But all these very rarely go together. A man of great intellect has often no sons, while a very learned man is often not a good speaker.

Then there is the question of friendships and enmities among planetṣ There is no rhyme nor reason in this respect. Why Venus, a beneficent planet in theory, should be the enemy of the Sun, when Jupiter another beneficent planet is a friend, is something which it is difficult to understand or explaiṇ Besides, these relationships are not reciprocal. The Moon has no enemy, but from the point of view of Venus, the Moon is the enemy of Venuṣ Mercury (mythologically the son of the Moon) is said to be a friend of the Moon, but from the point of view of Mercury the Moon is its enemy. There is a further strange matter to be noticeḍ As men fight among themselves, it has been supposed that the planets (excepting the Sun and the Moon) fight among themselves⁸¹ (vide note 872 above). Besides there are thousands of minor planets between Mars and Jupiter and ancient and medieval horoscopes took no account of Uranus, Neptune and Pluto among the planets nor of the numerous satellites of Jupiter.

Another important doctrine in Indian astrology is that of dṛṣṭi (glance, aspect) which has been explained above (note 876). That doctrine had some plausibility when the distances between the planets and the stars were not knowṇ But in view of modern astronomical knowledge the doctrine of the dṛṣṭis of planets has hardly any meaning. Every planet and star really Inasmuch as every other planet and star in this vast Universe at all times unless there happens to be another celestial object in the line connecting any two of them and it is very difficult to understand how one planet can look at another planet or star at a quarter or a half or ¾ths aspect (i e. at various angles)

When an astrologer says that a planet (say Venus) is in its svagṛha (own house) i e Vṛṣabha (Bull) with the Moon let us understand what it means The rāśi Vṛṣabha is constituted by many stars, the most brilliant of which is Rohinī (Aldebaran). Light travels at 186000 miles a second and modern astronomy finds that light takes 57 years to reach the earth from Aldebaraṇ The position then is this that the observer on the Moon, Venus and Aldebaran very near each other. According to modern astronomy the Moon is only about two hundred and forty thousands miles from the earth, Venus a few crores of miles from it and Aldebaran billions of billions of miles away. They appear to be near only on account of the effect of perspective. This creates difficulties which the astrologers altogether ignore. When an observer sees Aldebaran to-day the rays he sees today started some 57 years ago, while the rays of Mars are seen within a few minutes of their start and of the Moon almost immediately.

The principles of rāśi astronomy were probably established in India in the three centuries proceeding the Christian era. The predecessors of Varāhamihira and Varāhamihira himself saw Meṣa, Vṛṣabha and other rāśis occupying certain definite sectors of the Zodiac and propounded certain rules about the physical and mental characteristics and professions of persons born when the Moon was in Meṣa and the other rāśis (in chap. 17 of the Br. J.) and also of persons born on Meṣa and the other rāśis, when the Sun, Mars and the other planets occupied those signs (ibiḍ chap. 18). The zodiacal section where Vṛṣabha stood about two thousand years ago is now occupied by the constel- lations comprising Meṣa (Ram) owing to precessioṇ How can the astrological consequences of being born on Taurus two thousand years ago be the same now when Taurus does not occupy the Zodiacal sector which it occupied then and when that particular sector is occupied now by Aries?

The above discussion is enough to show the flaws in the teachings of Indian astrology and would lead thoughtful persons to conclude that the rules of astrology should have very little influence in determining the times of their undertakingṣ It appears that astrological details which were conspicuous by their absence in ancient Dharmaśāstra works have attained so much growth during the last two thousand years that the fundamental religious requirements have been smothered thereby. Those who believe that all events affecting men are necessitated by the planets and stars appear to go wrong in two wayṣ They thereby deprive God of control and providence in human affairs and they take away man’s free will. The dilemma is that if astrologers cannot stop or foil what the planets indicate, what is the use or benefit of their prescience; if they can stop or frustrate what is deemed to be fated to happen how can they support the thesis that planets compel events ?

The question arises then how far religious matters, such as Upanayana and marriage, should be regulated by astrological considerations It has been already shown above (p 606 and p 610) how the astrological requirements for Upanayana and marriage were very few and simple in the times of the gṛhyasūtras and the Manusmṛti (i e several centuries before the christian era), how later writers went on adding one requirement after another and how even in the 11th century A. D. orthodox works like the Rājamārtaṇḍa advised neglect of all astrological requirements in the case of girls whose marriages had to be postponed very long for some reason or other. Therefore, in respect of religious ceremonies like Upanayana and marriage the author would advise, as a first step towards getting rid of oppressive and meaningless astrological conditions, that people should revert to the simple rules of the gṛhyasūtras and Manu. There are two views on the observance of the rules about the details of religious riteṣ One is that a person⁸² need not go beyond the provisions contained in the gṛhyasūtra of his own Veda or śākhā and that when one observes those provisions he would be deemed to have performed all that the śāstra requires of hiṃ The second view (held by a majority of medieval writers of digests) was that one should include in a religious rite details mentioned in works of other śākhās, though not mentioned in his own śākhā, provided the former details are not in direct conflict with the details in his own śākha ⁸³. These people follow what is called the ‘sarvaśākha-pratyayanyāya’ of the Pūrvamīmāṁsā. Both these view-points have been explained at great length by the author in H. of Dh. vol. III p. 870 and vol. IV pp 852–855. In those times one may at most follow the astrological rules provided by the sūtras and Manu. Though the author has pointed out great flaws in the whole structure of Indian astrology, he does not think that it is his duty as a mere historian of Dharmaśāstra to advise people how far they should accept or discard astrology in general.