33. The Purānas

Volume I: Part I pp. 408–421

33. The Purānas

33. The Purāṇas

The Yājñavalkyasmṛti provides that Purāṇa, Nyāya ( Tarkasāstra ), Mīmāṁsā, dharmaśāstra, the ( six ) subsidiary lores of the Veda (aṅgas) and the Vedas (four)-these fourteen are the sources (means) of Vyās and of Dharma. It would be noticed that the 14 sources are arranged by Yājñavalkya in a rising scale of importance and authoritativenesṣ¹ The word Purāṇa (a class of works) occurs in the Atharvaveda (XI. 7. 24, XV. 6. 10-11). The Śat. Br. (XI. 5.6-8) includes 'Itihāsapurāṇam' among 'Svādhyāya' and further states that on the 9th day of the Pāriplava (an item in the Rājasūya sacrifice) the hotṛ priest narrates some Purāṇa. The Tai. Ār. II. 10 mentions Brāhmaṇas, Itihāsas, Purāṇas, Kalpas etc. (Brāhmaṇānītihāsān Purāṇāni Kalpān, Gāthā Narāśamsīh). In the Chāndogya Upaniṣad (VII. 2 and 4) Itihāsa-Purāṇa is spoken of as the fifth Veda and the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Up. (IV. 1. 2) separately mentions Itihāsa and Purāṇa. The Aśv. Gṛ. includes Purāṇāni under 'svādhyāya'.²

It is not unlikely that originally there was only a single work called Purāṇa. The Mahābhāṣya (Kielhorn, vol. I p. 9) uses the word Purāṇam and the Matsya (chap. 53) states that originally the Purāṇa was only one. But since the Tai. Ār. employs the word 'Purāṇāni' in the plural it appears likely that there were in the times of the Āraṇyaka at least three (if not more) works called Purāṇa. A verse quoted below – Purāṇam Mānavo dharmaḥ etc. – ³ occurs in many copies of the Manusmṛti after XII. 110 and is mentioned by the Tantravārtika on Mīmāṁsāsūtra I.3.27 p. 286 (Anaṇ eḍ, first half).

From early times the Purāṇas have been enumerated as eighteen; vide H. of Dh. Vol. V pp. 831-836. The number of upapurāṇas varies from a few to several dozenṣ The Purāṇas, as a class of works, were looked upon as encyclopaedias for all men and women as to ancient and medi-val Hindu religious practices, mythology, geography, his-tory of persons, families, royal dynasties and literature.

The chronology of Purāṇas is, like that of the Epics, a subject full of perplexing problems and is not dealt with in this revised edition of the first volume of the H. of Dh. as it has been discussed at length in the H. of Dh. Vol. V. pp. 815–1002 and the views of Pargiter, Kirfel, Dīkshitār and Hazra have been set out, discussed and criticized at length in pp. 831-853. Vide also the present author's paper ‘Paurāṇa-dharma’ in Gode commemoration volume pp. 70-82 for the changes in religious ideas and practices brought about by the Purāṇas or reflected in theṃ

It has to be mentioned here that in the first few centuries of the Christian era the idea prevailed that those rules or ordinances (Dharmas) that were understood from the Veda are the highest (in authority), but the rules (Dharmas) stated in the Purāṇas (and similar works) were inferior.⁴ This posi-tion assigned to the Purāṇas was changed a few centuries before 1000 A. D. and Purāṇas came to be far more relied upon by works on Dharmaśāstra. For example, the Kṛtyakalpa-taru (about 1125–1160 A. D.) quotes the Purāṇas even on such a topic as Mokṣu much more than the Upaniṣads or the Vedāntasūtra. Aparārka quotes a half verse⁵ as from Manu (not found in extant Manusmṛti), saying that one should strengthen the Veda by Itihāsa (i. e. Mahābhārata ) and Purā-ṇaṣ It is significant that the extensive commentary of Viśvarūpa on Yāj. hardly ever mentions a Purāṇa by name, though he twice refers to Purāṇas in a general way on Yāj. III. 170 and 175. He flourished about 800–860 A. D. Simi- larly, Medhātithi on Manu very rarely refers to Purāṇas and mentions none by name. Vide notes below.⁶ The main characteristics of the teachings of the extant Purāṇas, some of which at least were composed in the first few centuries of the Christian era would be merely indicated here briefly. Those who want to go into greater details are requested to refer to Vol. V of the H. of Dh. pp. 928-980. North India had been harassed by the invasions of foreign hordes such as the Śakas and Hūṇaṣ Besides, the performance of Vedic sacrifices had become rare; Buddhism, Jainism and other schisms had greatly affected the minds of all persons including religious and thoughtful meṇ The leaders of Hindu Society had to wean away common men from the new and attractive teachings of Buddhism and hence the writers of Purāṇas struck upon finding out new dogma. The first doctrine that was recommended was that great rewards (spiritual and other-worldly) would follow on a little trouble and effort.⁷ Dāna (charity and gifts) came to be regarded as conferring the highest rewards in the Manusmṛti (I. 86 ‘tapaḥ paraṃ.. dānamekaṁ kalau yuge’), in Śāntiparva, Vāyupurāṇa (6.65-66), Parāśarasmṛti (I. 23). The gifts of food (and particu-larly to brāhmaṇas) were regarded as highest. When the invasions by foreign hordes were frequent and when rulers of different kingdoms in India itself engaged in constant warfare this idea was good enough Even the Ṛgveda (X. 117. 6) condemns one, who offers no food to Aryaman (and other gods) nor to a friend (guest etc.) and feeds himself alone, eating only siṇ The same idea (almost in the same words) occurs in Manu III. 18, Viṣṇusmṛti 67. 43 (aghaṁ sa kevalaṁ-bhuṅkte yaḥ pacatyātmakāraṇāt) and the Bhagavad-gītā (III. 13). But the Purāṇas carried this idea to extreme limitṣ Manu prescribed that in rites in honour of gods and pitṛs, even a single learned brāhmaṇa may be fed to secure the full reward of the rite, but not many brāhmaṇas who do not know the mantraṣ Again, in III. 149 Manu says that in rites for gods no close examination about a brāhmaṇa should be indulged in, but that in rites for ances-tors effort should be made to ascertain that the family and character of the brāhmaṇas are both gooḍ But gradually this idea was given up, particularly at Śrāddhas in Gayā. For example, the Vāyupurāṇa states that the brāhmaṇas of Gayā are supermen, that when they are gratified (at a Śrāddha) the gods together with the pitṛs become gratified, that no question should be raised about their family, their character, learning or tapas and that by honouring them a man attains liberatioṇ It may be pointed out that the Vanaparva (chap. 84. 82-104) speaks at length about Gayā and its holy places, most of which are quoted in the Padmapurāṇa, Ādikhaṇḍa, chap. 38 (verses 2-19). Those interested may consult H. of Dh. Vol. IV for detailed statements about Gayā. Another important change in beliefs and practices mirror-ed in the Purāṇas is that of pilgrimages to holy places and baths in holy rivers as destroying the effects of even the most heinous sinṣ⁸ For example, the Anuśāsanaparva (25. 42) says– In Gayā a man is purified even of the murders of brāhmaṇas, if he visits Asmaprṣṭha (Pretasīlā in Gayā), the hill called Niravinda and the Krauñcapadī. We find even the Vanaparva stating that one does not secure those rewards even by performing solemn sacrifices in which fees paid to the priests are large, as one secures by pilgrimages to holy placeṣ

Another development for which Purāṇas are largely responsible is that of numerous observances called Vratas (described in vol. V part 1 pp. 81-462). It makes one sad to find that a great minister of State in the latter half of 13th century A. D., Hemādri, deals with nearly 1000 vratas in about 2500 printed pages, instead of pondering over the great menace of invasions against India by foreigners from the 11th century onwards and does not take or even suggest methods or means to counteract that evil.

Another important aspect dealt with by some Purāṇas is that of ‘bhakti’ (devotion to God) and Nāmasmaraṇa (repeating inaudibly the names of God). The word Bhakti in its technical sense of loving faith in and surrender to God does not occur in the early Upaniṣads, but only in the Svetāśvatāropaniṣad VI. 23 (yasya deve parā bhaktir-yathā deve tathā guru). It is developed in the Bhagavadgītā (as in IX. 27 and 34, XI. 55), and in the Bhāgavata, Viṣṇu and other Purāṇaṣ The subject of bhakti has been treated at some length in H. of Dh. vol. V pp. 950-980.

Prof. Hazra in ‘Indian Culture’ vol. I. pp. 587-614 contributes a learned paper on ‘Purāṇas in the History of smṛti’ and at the end of the paper sets out several nibandha works on Dharmaśāstra in which Purāṇa passages are quoted and relied upoṇ

His treatment of the subject is, however, not exhaustive. To take only one instance. As regards quotations from Purāṇas in the Mit. he cites only one quotation from the Matsyapurāṇa (chap. 94). But the Mit. quotes several Purāṇas on Yāj. III. 30 it quotes a verse from Brahmāṇḍapurāṇa which is also quoted by the Smṛticandrikā. On Yāj. I. 297–98 the Mit. quotes two verses from Matsyapurāṇa (93.11–12) on the position of the planets on a diagram or painting of planets in Grahapūjā. Matsya (93.33–37) prescribes the same four Vedic mantras that Yāj. prescribes (in I. 300–301) for the worship of the Sun, Mars, Saturn and Ketu. The Mit. on Yāj. III. 6 prescribes the offering of Nārāyanabali for those that commit suicide and states that the procedure is described in Vaiṣṇava (purāṇa ?). On Yāj. III. 6 the Mit. quotes from the Bhaviṣyat-purāṇa providing for death on serpent bite, to a brāhmaṇa reciter of Purāṇas the gift of a golden serpent made from one bhāra of golḍ The Mit. on Yāj. II. 290 refers to the view of the Skandapurāṇa that there were veśyās that belonged to a distinct caste. It appears to quote the Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa several times on Yāj. I.236, 254, III. 19, 287. Thus the Mit. mentions by name only six Purāṇas, while Aparārka names twenty Purāṇas and Smṛti-candrikā 22.

In all about 40 Purāṇas and Upapurāṇas are quoted in Nibandhaṣ

Purāṇas have been published by different individuals, presses and societieṣ A critical edition of at least the eighteen Purāṇas based on Msṣ collected from all parts of our country had long been a desideratuṃ But only recently the work of re-editing Purāṇas in a critical manner by collecting and consulting Msṣ from the whole of India has been under-taken by the Purāṇa Prakāśana Samiti of the All-India Kashiraj Trust, Benareṣ The work which is under the general guidance of Dr. V. Raghavan, Dr. V. S. Agrawala and Paṇḍitarāja Sri Rajeśvara Sastri has been going on for some time. With the help of the new Catalogus Catalogorum of Dr. V. Raghavan, a complete list of the Msṣ of the Purāṇas and the Upapurāṇas has been prepareḍ The work of bring-ing out a critical edition of the Matsyapurāṇa has been going on in Madras under the guidance of Dr. Raghavan and the work of the critical edition of the Vāmanapurāṇa has been undertaken by Dr. V. S. Agrawala at Benareṣ The Samiti mentioned above has been also bringing out a Bulletin called Purāṇa, which publishes only Purāṇic studies by different scholars aiming at the elucidation of the textual and other problems relating to the subject-matter embodied in the Purāṇaṣ

The preparation of a subjectwise encyclopaedia of Purāṇic material, publication of popular expositions of Purāṇas in English or Hindi are among the lines of work that are includ- ed among the objectives of the Purāṇa Prakāśana Samiti. The subject-concordance of six Purāṇas viz. Kūrma, Liṅga, Matsya, Mārkaṇḍeya, Viṣṇu and Vāmana is also ready ( at the end of 1964 ).

For the critical edition of the Matsyapurāṇa, Dr. Raghavan is relying on more than thirty msṣ, all printed edi- tions and an old Tamil translatioṇ Besides, as each indivi- dual Purāṇa is closely connected with many other Purāṇas and as almost all Purāṇas have numerous common topics, Dr. Raghavan is using the other Purāṇas for parallel portions contained in theṃ As Purāṇas have been quoted in numerous Dharmaśāstra works, Dr. Raghavan has collected all quota- tions from the Matsya-purāṇa in nibandha works on Dharmaśāstra. His plan of work on the Matsya has been set forth in his Presidential Address at the 21st session of the All- India Oriental Conference held at Srinagar in 1961.

As the project of the critical editions of the Purāṇas is a long-term one, a Vyāsa Institute on a permanent basis at Benares is going to be established in the near future.

The constitution of the original text of the purāṇas is a Herculean task which has not yet been attempteḍ Not only is there difference of opinion among the purāṇas about the names of the 18 Mahā-Purāṇas, but there is divergence as regards the extent of the several purāṇaṣ For example, the commentator Viṣṇucitta of the Viṣṇupurāṇa says ( on III. 6. 20-22 ) that the extent of the Viṣṇupurāṇa is variously given at 8000, 9000, 10000, 22000, 24000, but that he comments on a text of 6000 ślokas only. The Agnipurāṇa ( 272.10-11 ) says that it contains 12000 ślokas, while the Bhāgavata ( XII. 13 ), the Brahmavaivarta, the Padma ( ādi. 62 ) say that it contains 15400 ślokas and the Skanda ( V. 3 ) and the Matsya 53 give the extent of the Agni as 16000. The Kūrma, according to the Bhāgavata, contains 17000, according to the Matsya 18000 and only 8000 according to the Agni ( 272. 19 ). Though there is a remarkable continuity in India as to religious thoughts and practices, yet the popular religion of modern Hindus is pre-eminently paurāṇic. The Purāṇas contain thousands of ślokas on dharmaśāstra matters, they are a rich mine awaiting exploration by careful students of social and religious questions and shed a flood of light on the development of religious beliefs and practices in medieval and modern India. Therefore, the re-constitution of the text of the purāṇas is a problem that will have to be tackled in the near future. Besides the several Mahāpurāṇas, eighteen Upapurāṇas also are enumerated in some of the Purāṇaṣ Vide Garuda (223.17 ff)⁹ Skanda (V. 3, chap. 1. 45-62 and VII. I. chap. 2), Padma (Pātāla-khaṇḍa chap. 111. 95-98 and Matsya (53. 59 ff) for Upapurāṇaṣ The Matsya-purāṇa (chap. 53, verse 58) states that the 18 purāṇas reached in extent four lakhs of verses and also states that there were upabhedas (i.e. Upapurāṇas) and names some of them viz. Nārasimha, Nānda, (Nāndam), Sāmba and Aditya. Besides the Mahāpurāṇas and Upapurāṇas, there are other works of the purāṇa class such as Gaṇeśa, Maudgala, Devī, Kalki &c. The Padmapurāṇa (Uttarakhaṇḍa chap. 263) divides the 18 Purāṇas into three groups, sāttvika, rājasa and tāmasa and says that the Viṣṇu, Nāradīya, Bhāgavata, Garuda, Padma and Varāha are sāttvika. The Matsya (53) also speaks of this divisioṇ The Lingapurāṇa (39. 63-66) speaks of the twenty expounders of dharma just as Yājñavalkya does and quotes the two verses in the form in which the Mit. presents them (and not Viśvarūpa), while the Padma (Uttarakhaṇḍa 263. 86-89) divides the eighteen smṛtis into three groups of sāttvika, rājasa and tāmasa.¹⁰ It would be quite clear to any reader of the purāṇas and the smṛtis that most of the former in their extant form are later than the smṛtis of Manu, Yājñavalkya, Parāśara, Nārada &c. The following table will give some idea as to how the eighteen principal purāṇas are rich in dharmaśāstra material. Besides the eighteen principal purāṇas, the Kālikā-purāṇa (Veṅkaṭeśvara press eḍ) and the Saura-purāṇa (Ānandāśrama eḍ) have been drawn upoṇ The Ānandāśrama editions of the Agni, Padma, Matsya and Vāyu and the Nirṇayasāgara edition of the Bhāgavata and the Veṅkaṭeśvara Press editions of the other Purāṇas have generally been relied upon in the present edition of the 1st volume.

It may be stated here that the Smṛti chapters in the Purāṇas are very much influenced by Manu, Yāj., Nārada and mostly by the first.

Ācāra—Brahma 113; Garuḍa 50; Kālikā 88; Kūrma (uttarārdha) 13; Liṅga (pūrvārdha) 89; Mārkaṇḍeya 31; Nārada (pūrvārdha) 26; Padma (Ādikhaṇḍa) 52-56, pātālakhaṇḍa 9, sṛṣṭikhaṇḍa 46); Skanda I (Kaumārikā 41), III. (dharmāraṇya 6), IV. I (pūrvārdha 38, 40); Śiva (kailāsasaṁhitā) chap. 18-20 (on ācāra of yati, making of a disciple, yogapaṭṭa); Vāyu 16; Viṣṇu III. 11-12.

Āśauca—Agni 157-158 (both kinds, on death and birth); Brahma 113 (on birth); Garuḍa (preta-khaṇḍa) chap. 5; Kūrma (uttarārdha chap. 23); Liṅga (pūrvārdha 89).

Āhnika—Agni 155; Brahma-vaivarta (Brahmakhaṇḍa) 26; Garuḍa 50 and 213-217; Kūrma (uttarārdha) 18-19; Liṅga 26; Mārkaṇḍeya 27; Nārada (pūrvārdha) 27; Padma (sṛṣṭikhaṇḍa 46, uttara 233); Skanda IV. I (pūrvārdha) chap. 35 and III. 2 (dharmāraṇya-khaṇḍa) chap. 5.

Āśramadharmas—Agni 160-161; Bhāgavata VII. 12 and 13, XI. 17; Brahma 114; Garuḍa 49; Kūrma (uttarārdha) 1-16 (brahmacārin and gṛhastha) and 27-28 (vānaprastha and yati); Mārkaṇḍeya 25-26; Nārada (pūrvārdha 27 and 43); Padma (ādikhaṇḍa 58-60 for vānaprastha and yati, bhūmikhaṇḍa 59 for gṛhastha, sṛṣṭikhaṇḍa 15); Saura 17 and 20) vānaprastha and saṁnyāsin); Skanda IV. I (pūrvārdha) chap. 41 (vānaprastha and yati); Viṣṇu III. 9.

H. D.-53 Bhaksyābhaksya—Brahmavai- varta (brahmakhaṇḍa 27, 4th khaṇḍa, uttarārdha chap. 85 ); Kūrma (utta- rārdha chap. 17); Padma (ādīkhaṇḍa 56 ). brāhmaṇa-vide under varṇa- dharmas; greatness of—Padma (bra- hmakhaṇḍa chap. 14) and sṛṣṭikhaṇḍa chap. 45 ); duties of—Kūrma (utta- rārdha, chap. 12 and 19 ); Saura 18; who is a worthy—Padma (sṛṣṭi 15); means of livelihood for— Kūrma (uttarārdha 25 ); Padma (sṛṣṭi 45 ). Dāna—vide under pratiṣṭhā and utsarga. Agni 209-213 (mahā- dānas); Bhaviṣya IV. 150 ff; Brahma 109 (spe- cially annadāna); Bra- hmavaivarta (prakṛti- khaṇḍa 27 ); Garuḍa 51; Kūrma uttarārdha 26 (4 kinds, nitya, naimi- ttika, kāmya, vimala ); Liṅga, uttarārdha 28 (16 mahādānas); Matsya 81-91, 205-206, 274-289 (16 mahādānas); Nārada (pūrvārdha 13 and 31, uttarārdha 41-42 ); Padma (ādi 57, bhūmi- khaṇḍa 39-40 and 94, brahmakhaṇḍa 24, sṛṣṭi 45 on godāna and 75, uttara 27 on annadāna, 28 and 33 ); Saura 9-10; Śiva (Umāsaṃhitā chap.

11 and 14 ); Skanda I (Kaumārikā - khaṇḍa 2 for names of famous do- nors), III. 2 (dharmā- raṇya 34), VII. 1. 5 and 208; Varāha 99-111. Dravyāśuddhi — Agni 156, Bhāgavata XI. 21; Brah- ma 113; Liṅga (pūrvār- dha 89); Mārkaṇḍeya 32. Gotra and Pravara—Matsya 194-201; Skanda III. 2 (dharmāraṇya-khaṇḍa) 9. Kaliśvarūpa— vide under Yugadharmaṣ Brahma 122-123; Brah- māṇḍa (anusaṅgāpāda chap. 31 ); Brahmavai- varta (prakṛtikhaṇḍa 7); Kūrma 30; Liṅga 40; Nāradīya (pūrvārdha 41); Skanda I (Kaumārikā- khaṇḍa chap. 40 and 218-248 ), II (puruṣo- ttamamāhātmya chap. 39 ), VI. 272; Vāyu I. 58. Kalivarjya—Nārada (pūr- vārdha chap. 24 ). Karmavipāka—Brahma 108; Brahmavaivarta (prakṛti- khaṇḍa 26 and 28 and 4th khaṇḍa uttarārdha 85 ); Mārkaṇḍeya 15; Padma (Brahma-khaṇḍa 5, pātālakhaṇḍa 48 ); Vāmana 12. Narakas—vide under pāta- kaṣ Agni 203 and 371; Brahma 20 (25 names given ), 105 (22 names) ; Brahmavaivarta, prakṛti-khaṇḍa 29 (for names of 86 narakakuṇḍas ) and 33; Padma (uttara, chap. 227 for names of 140) ; Śiva (umāsaṁhitā chap. 8 for 28 narakas and chap. 16) ; Skanda I (kaumārikā-khaṇḍa 39), VI. 226-227, Viṣṇu I. 6. and II.6. 90 (for lapses of yatis) ; Nārada, pūrvārdha 14 and 30 ; Padma (brahma-khaṇḍa 18-19) ; Saura 52; Varāha 68 (for agamyāgamana ), 131-136 (for various lapses), 179; Vāyu (pūrvārdha 18 for lapses of yati).

Nīti-vide under rājadharma; Garuḍa 108-114 (summary of Bṛhaspati-nīti) and 115 (summary of Śaunaka). Rājadharma-Agni 220-242; Kālikā 87; Mārkaṇḍeya 24; Matsya 216-227,240.

Pātākas-vide under prāyaścitta; Agni 168 (mahāpātākas and lesser sins) ; Brahma 20 and 105-106 ; Mārkaṇḍeya 12-14; Nārada (pūrvārdha 15) ; Śiva (umāsaṁhitā 5 for mahāpātākas and 6 for upapātākas). Saṁskāra-vide under Vivāha also. Agni 153-154 and 166; Bhaviṣya I (Brāhmaparva chap. 3-4 and 7) ; Nārada, pūrvārdha 25-26; Skanda IV. I (pūrvārdha 36 and 38); Viṣṇu III.10.

Pratiṣṭhā-Agni 38-106 (building and consecration of temples, idols of Viṣṇu &c); Garuḍa 45-48; Padma (uttarakhaṇḍa chap. 122 and 127 for Śālagrāma) ; Matsya 258-270; Śiva I (vidyeśvara-saṃhitā chap. 11. Śānti-Agni 149, 164, 167, 259-268, 290-91, 320-324; Bhaviṣya IV chap. 141 ff; Brahmavaivarta IV (uttarardha chap. 82); Matsya 92-93 and 228-239

Prāyaścitta-Agni 170-174 ; Brahmāṇḍa (upasaṁhārapāda chap. 8; Garuḍa 52 (specially for mahāpātākas) and 222; Kūrma-uttarardha 30-34; Liṅga Śrāddhas-Agni 117 (according to Kātyāyana ) and 163; Brahma 110-113; Brahmāṇḍa (upodghātapāda 9-20); Kūrma-uttarardha 20-22; Mārkaṇḍeya 27-30; Liṅga, uttarārdha 45 (jīvat-śrāddha); Matsya 16-22; Nārada, pūrvārdha 128; Padma (pātālakhaṇḍa 101, sṛṣṭi 9 11 and 47) ; Śiva (kailāsasaṁhitā 21-23 (about after-death rites of yati) ; Saura 19 ; Skanda VI. 215-225 and VII. 1. chap. 205-207 ; Varāha 13-14 and 187- 188 ; Vāyu (uttarārdha chap. 10-21) ; Viṣṇu III. 13-16.

Strīdharmā—Bhāgavata VII. 11; Bhavisya I chap. 11-15 ; Brahmavaivarta (brahmakhaṇḍa 9 about greatness of pativratā, 4th khaṇḍa, uttarārdha 83 (about pativratā); Padma (bhūmikhaṇḍa 41, pātāla 102, sṛṣṭi 47 and 49, uttara 234 (duties of wife and co-wives) ; Śiva (Rudrasamhitā, Pārvati- khaṇḍa 54); Skanda III. 2 (dharmāraṇya- khaṇḍa 7).

tīrtha-Agni 109-116; Bhāga- vata VII. 14; Brahma 23, 26 (Koṇārka in Orissa), 39 (Ekāmra), 40-48 (Jagannātha), 54 (Mahākāla at Ujjayini) ; Garuḍa 81-86 ; Kūrma, Pūrvārdha 31-35 (Bena- res), 36-38 (Prayāga), uttarardha 35-44; Liṅga, pūrvārdha 92; Matsya 179-183 and 188-193; Nāradīya, uttarārdha 39-40 (Gaṅgāsnāna ), 45- 47 (Gayā ), 48-49 (Bena- res), 50 (Śivaliṅgas ), 52-61 (Jagannātha 62- 81 (numerous tīrthas ) ; Padma I. 13-49, Padma, bhūmikhaṇḍa 90 and 92 sṛṣṭikhaṇḍa 14-15 and 18-19, 60; uttarakhaṇḍa 2, 20-25, 113, 129 (nume- rous tīrthas named), 130- 169, 195 ; Saura 67 ; Śiva I. 12 (koṭirudrasamhitā I-2, 8-33) ; Skanda I. ( aruṇācala - māhātmya, uttarārdha 2), II (puru- ṣottamāmāhātmya 1-49) ; II. Badarikā-māhātmya 1-8 ; III. 1 ; III 2. 31 ; V. 3 (Revākhaṇḍa is full of tīrthas in 252 chapters) and also VI and VII; 33-42 and 50 ; Vāmana 141-176 ; Vāyu, uttarārdha 43-50 (Gayā).

Tithi-vide under vratas also. Brahma 120 (ekādaśī) ; Nārada, pūrvārdha 29 (what tithi should be taken, paraviddhā or pūrvaviddhā) ; Nārada, uttarārdha 2 ; Padma, brahmakhaṇḍa 13 (jan- māṣṭamī ), 15 (ekādaśī) ; Saura 51 ; Varāha 23-35 (all tithis from 1st to amāvasyā ).

Utsarga—(works of public utility such as tanks and wells, parks, prapās etc. ) —vide under dāna and pratiṣṭhā. Bhavisya II; Nārada, pūrvārdha 13; Padma, sṛṣṭi 54-56; uttara 28 ; Śiva (Vidye- śvarasamhitā 11). . Varṇadharmas—Agni 151; Bhāgavata VII. 11. and XI. 17; Brahma 114–115; Garuḍa 49; Mārkaṇḍeya 25; Nārada, pūrvārdha 24, 43, 59, 70; Skanda VI. 242; Viṣṇu III. 8. mixed castes—Brahmavaivarta (Brahmakhaṇḍa 10). Vivāha-vide under saṁskāra. Padma, uttara 223 and 232; Skanda IV, pūrvārdha 38. Vrata—Agni 175–200, 204 (upavāsa); Bhaviṣya I. 17 ff, IV (several hundred vratas); Brahma 27 (upavāsa); Brahmavaivarta (4th khaṇḍa, pūrvārdha 8 and 26); Garuḍa 116-137, Liṅga, pūrvārdha 83–84; Nārada, pūrvārdha 17–22, 110–124; Matsya 54–80, 94–100; Padma (bhūmi 87, brahmakhaṇḍa 3–4, 7, 11, 13, 15–16, 21–23, pātāla khaṇḍa 86–96, 108, sṛṣṭi 20–24, 31, 76, 79–82, uttara 26, 31–32, 35–65, 66–71, 78, 85, 97, 125, 170, 240–41, 262; Skanda I. (Kedāra 33 ), II. 4. I–36, II. 5 and 7, V. I. 60–61, VI. 232–241; Śiva (Kotirudrasaṁhitā 38,40, Umāsaṁhitā 51): Varāha 39–65. Vyavahāra—Agni 253–258; Skanda I. (Kaumārikā khaṇḍa) 44 (eight ordeals described). Yugadharmas—vide also under Kalisvarūpa. Garuḍa 223; Liṅga 39; Matsya 141–143, 164; Nārada, pūrvārdha 41; Skanda VI. 272; Vāyu I. 32 and 58.