Chapter II. Means of Reducing Consequences of Sins

Volume IV pp. 41–56

Chapter II. Means of Reducing Consequences of Sins

Confession—In Āp. Dh S. I, 9. 24. 15, I, 10. 28. 19, I, 10. 29. 1 it is prescribed that the person undergoing a penance for being an abhūśasta or for unjustly forsaking his wife or for the murder of a learned brāhmaṇa has to declare his misdeed while begging for alms to support himself. The Vedic student who was guilty of sexual intercourse had also to proclaim his lapse while begging at seven houses (Gaut, 23.18, Manu XI 122 )¹

Repentance ( anutāpa )—Manu² XI 229-230 (=Viṣudharm-ottara II. 73 231-32 ) provide : “ The more a man’s mind loathes his own evil deed the more does his body become freed from the unrighteousness (committed by him ). If after committing a sin a man feels repentance for having done it he becomes free from that siṇ He becomes purified only by the resolution of ceasing to sin and thinking ‘ I shall not do so again ’ .³ The Viṣṇupurāṇa II. 6.40 lays emphasis on repentance and humble devotion to Kṛṣṇa. Pr. V. ( p. 30 ) quotes a verse of Angiras ‘ A man after committing sins, if he is consumed by repentance and is sorry day and night (for his misdeed), is purified by prāṇāyāma ’ . The view of digests like the Pr. Prakāśa is that repentance by itself is not enough to destroy sins, but that repentance renders the sinners fit to receive penance, just as paring the nails and the like make the person intending to perform a Vedic sacrifice fit to be a dikṣita. Yama quoted by Aparārka (p. 1231) states that repentance and repeating the sin are merely the aṅgas (subsidiary elements) of prāyaścittas and cannot independently take the place of penanceṣ

Prāṇāyāma (restraint of the breath) Vide H of Dh. vol II p. 317 for a description of thiṣ Manu XI. 248 (which is the same as Bauḍ Dh S IV 1 31, Vaṣ 26 4, Atri IL 5, Sankhasmṛti XII 18–19) lays down ‘sixteen prāṇāyāmas attended by the Vyāhṛtis and the Pranava (omkāra ), if performed every day, would purify after a month even the murderer of a bhrūṇa (a learned brāhmaṇa)’. Viṣṇu Dh S. 55.2 (in prose) is to the same effect. Vas 26 1–3 provide that on the proper performance of three prāṇāyāmas all the sins committed by day or in the night are at once destroyeḍ Yāj. III 305 states that for the removal of all sins, of upapātakas and of sins for which no special expiation is provided by the texts one hundred prāṇāyāmas should be performeḍ This refers to sins not known to others for which expiation is to be performed secretly. Baud Dh. S (IV 15–11) provides for varying numbers (3, 7, 12) of prāṇāyāmas to be spread over one day to a year for different kinds of sins ranging from the eating of the food of a śūdra to brāhmaṇa murder. This whole passage is quoted by the Mit. on Yāj. III.305 which points out the kinds of sins it deals with. The Agnipurāṇa 173.21 has the same half verse as Yāj. III 305 (first half).

Tapas (austerity) Even Rg X 154 2 speaks of tapas as leading to heaven and as unassailable. The Chāṇ Up V 10 1–2, Mundaka Up I 2 10–11 place tapas over yajña. Gaut 19 15 says that celibacy,⁴ truthfulness, bathing thrice daily (in the morning, at noon and in the evening), wearing wet clothes (till they are dried on the body), sleeping on the ground (on a raised part or altar) and fasting constitute austeritieṣ Baud Dh S III 10 13 adds to these ‘ahiṁsā’ (non-injury to any being), asaṁga (not depriving any one of his property) and guru-śuśrūṣā (attendance upon a teacher). Gaut. 19 17 states that The periods for which tapas is to be observed are a year, six months, four months, three months, two months, one (month), 24 days, 12 days, 6 days, 3 days, a day and a night, (according to the nature of the sin). Manu XI. 239–241 declare that those guilty of mahāpātakas and others guilty of evil deeds are freed from sins by well-practised tapas and that whatever sins are committed by people in thought, word and bodily actions are all quickly burnt by tapas. This doctrine is shared by the Jainas as stated in the Uttarādhyayana XXIX. 27 ‘by austerities he cuts off karman’ (S B. E. vol 45 p. 166).

Homa (sacrifice into fire). The Tai. Ā. (II 7–8) describes⁵ the kūsmāṇḍa homa and dīkṣā and II. 8 prescribes that the man who regards himself as impure should offer a sacrifice with the kūsmāṇḍa mantras (mentioned in Tai Ā. II. 3–6, viz ‘yaddevā deva-hedanam’ (VāJ. S 20 14–16=Tai. Ā. II. 3.1) The Mahārṇava-karmavīpaka (folio 8 a) prescribes the procedure of Kūsmāṇḍa homa taken from Jamadagni which is brief. It is as followṣ— After shaving the hair on the head and the moustache and taking a bath in holy water one should offer the ājyabhāgas and then offer oblations of clarified butter with the three Anuvākas beginning with ‘yad devā devahedanam,’ and then he worships fire with the verses beginning with ‘Vaiśvānārāya pratipā-yam’ and then he repeats the Jayā mantraṣ He has to observe the rules for a diksita viz not eating flesh, avoiding sexual intercourse, not telling a falsehood and not sleeping on a cot. He has to subsist on milk (if he is a brāhmaṇa), on barley gruel if a kṣatriya and on āmikṣā if he is a vaiśya. The Kūsmāṇḍa-homa as prescribed by Baudhāyana is a longer one The Bauḍ Dh. S. III. 7 1 prescribes that he who considers himself impure should offer burnt oblations reciting the kūsmāṇḍa mantras, that he who has had forbidden intercourse becomes even like a thief or even like a slayer of a learned brāhmaṇa. and that (by performing homa with kūsmāṇḍas) he becomes free from any sin that is less than the murder of a learned brāhmaṇa Yāj III. 309 provides that whenever a twice-born man feels himself mixed up in heavy sins he should perform a homa with sesame with the sacred Gāyatri mantra. The Mit following a verse of Yama says that one lakh of offerings of sesame must be made. Both Manu XI. 34 and Vas 26 16 say that a brāhmaṇa becomes free from all distresses by Vedic recitations (japa) and sacrifices (homa). When the wife con- fessed to the existence of a paramour, the Śat. Br. II 5 2. 20 states that she made an offering into the Dakṣiṇāgni with the mantra (Vāj S. III 45) ‘whatever⁶ sin we have committed, whether in the village, in the forest, in society or by the organs of sense, we cast that away by this sacrifice, svāhā.’ Both Manu (VIII. 105) and Yāj (II. 83) prescribe that when a witness tells a falsehood in order to prevent an accused person from be- ing sentenced to death, he should offer for expiating his perjury an oblation of boiled rice to Sarasvati There are other homas also prescribed such as the Ganahoma, in which such verses as ‘agne naya supathā’ from the Taittirīya śākhā are recited (Mahārṇava).

The old idea of sacrifice seems to have been that it was propitiatory in character Sacrifice was not demanded or required by Goḍ Sacrifice was probably regarded as a gift which pleased God, induced Him to forgive a man for his transgressions and enabled erring man to regain God’s favour which had been lost by some shortcoming or some sinful act Sacrifices therefore had an expiatory or cleansing function or character. Sacrifices may be performed by offerings either an animal (meant as substitute for the sinner himself who had forfeited his life for his sins and transgressions) or a burnt offering or any other thing offered to God and then distri- buted to otherṣ

Japa (muttering of Vedic passages as prayers) Japa is of three kinds, vācika (audibly uttered), upāmśu (inaudibly uttered) and mānasa (mentally revolved), each succeeding one being ten times superior, acc to Laghu Hārita IV. p 186, (Jīvananda I).⁷ Śābara (on Jai. XII. 4. 1) distinguishes japa from stuti, the former being simply an utterance or recitation of a mantra or mantras⁸. Inaudible japa is praised⁹ in Śāṅkhāyana Br. 14. 1. The Aśv. Śr I 1 20 provides that japa, anūmantraṇa, āpyāyana and upasthāna are uttered upāṁśu. The Āp. Śr (24 1, 8–10) provides that mantras from the Ṛgveda and the Sāmaveda are uttered in sacrifices loudly and the Yajurveda are muttered upāṁśu and the Tai. Prātiśākhya 23. 6 states that upāṁśu recitation is made by means of the effort of speech organs but without sound (i. e. in a very low voice) and without the mind being directed (to utterance with udātta and other accents) i. e. ‘Karanavad-asabdam-amanah-prayogam-upāṁśu’. Gaut. 19. 12 (= Bauḍ Dh. S. III. 10 10=Vas 22 9) prescribes the following Vedic texts as purifiers: Upaniṣads, Vedānta texts, the saṃhitā texts of all the Vedas (and not the padapūṭha or kramapāṭha), the Yajus texts in which the word ‘madhu’ occurs, the Aghamarṣaṇa hymn (Rg. X. 190 1–3), the Atharvaśiras, (the anuvākas called) Rudras, the Purusa hymn (Rg. X. 90), the two sāmans called Rājata and Rauhiṇeya, the Bṛhat-sāma and the Rathantara, the Puruṣagati sāman, the Mahānāmnī verses, the Mahāvairāja (sāman), the Mahādivākīrtya (sāman), any of the Jyestha sāmans, the Bahispavamana (sāman), the Kūṣmāṇḍas, the Pāvamānis (Rg. IX) and the Sāvitrī (Rg. III. 62 10).¹⁰ The original idea of japa was highly spiritual. Deep knowledge of the Upanisads and other texts would have made the soul pure and enabled it to realize the supreme reality and induced in the mind love of all human beings as sparks of the one Divine Essence. Japa at the highest level was contemplation of God and endeavour to attain unity with God The habit of repeat- ing the sacred texts should lead to maintaining the soul in the presence and thought of God Japa demands three things, purity of heart, detachment and placing oneself in the hands of God

Manu XI. 46 provides that a sin unintentionally committed is expiated by the recitation of Vedic texts as prayers, but that which men in their folly commit intentionally is expiated by prāyaścitta Manu II 85-87 (which are the same as Vaṣ 26 9-11 and Viṣṇu Dh S 55. 10-21) lay¹² down: 'the performance of japa is ten times more efficacious than the sacrifices (like Darśapūrṇa-māsa) prescribed by the rules (of the Veda), japa when carried on inaudibly is a hundred times superior (to sacrifices) and mental revolution of mantras is a thousand times superior The four pākayajñas¹³ (Vaiśvadeva, bali, daily śrāddha, and honouring guests) together with the Vedic sacrifices do not come up to even the 16th part of japa. A brāhmaṇa attains perfection (the highest goal) by japa; he may or may not engage in other duties (such as Vedic sacrifices), a brāhmaṇa befriends all creatures'. Great eulogy is bestowed on the inaudible japa of the Gāyatrī mantra (Rg III. 62 10) for which pp. 303-305 of H of Dh. vol. II may be consulted Where no particular number is specially mentioned the recitation of a mantra is to be per-formed a hundred timeṣ¹⁴

Manu¹⁵ XI. 261-262, Vas 27 1-3, Aṅgiras 101 and other works go so far as to assert that the fire of Veda study consumes guilt caused by evil deeds just as a fire burning strongly consumes even green trees or that a brāhmaṇa who remembers Ṛgveda (studied by him) is not tainted by any guilt, though he may have destroyed the three worlds and have eaten the food of any person whatever But these are simply laudatory (arthavādas) and are not to be taken literally, as Vaṣ 27. 4 ¹⁶ (=Aṅgiras 102) gives the warning 'one should not become addicted to (or take pleasure in committing) evil deeds relying on the power of the Veda (stated in some smṛti passages). (The effects of) actions done through ignorance and negligence are alone consumed (by Veda study) and not those of other actions (intentionally done).'

Many smṛtis such as Manu XI 249-257 (which are almost the same as Viṣṇudharmottara II. 74. 4-13), Vas 26. 5-7 and 28 10-15 (the former of which are the same as Manu XI 249-251), Viṣṇu Dh. S 56 3–27, Atri VI.1-5 (which are almost the same as Vas ¹⁷ 28 10–15), Śaṅkha, chap. 11 (=Vas 28 10–15), Saṁvarta 227–228, Baud Dh. S IV 2 4–5, IV. 3 8, IV. 4 2–5, Yaj III 302–305, prescribe several Vedic hymns or single Vedic verses or prose passages as specially efficacious for removing all sins It is not possible nor necessary to set down all of them, but by way of sample the verses of Manu (XI 249–257) are translated here. ‘Even a drinker of surā becomes pure if he mutters the hymn (seen) by Kutsa ¹⁸, the three verses beginning with ‘prati’ (Rg VII. 80 1–3) seen by Vasiṣṭha, the Māhitra hymn (Rg X 185), the verses called Śuddhavatīs (Rg VIII 95 7–9 where the word ‘śuddha’ occurs 13 times in different connections). Even he who has stolen gold (of a brāhmaṇa) instantly becomes free from guilt if he once mutters (the hymn) beginning with ‘asya vāmasya’ i e. Rg I 164 1–52), and the Śivasankalpa (Vāj S XXXIV. 1–6). The violater of a guru’s bed is freed from sin if he he repeatedly recites the hymn beginning with ‘havişpāṁtam’ (Rg. X 88 1–19) and the hymn beginning with ‘na tam-amho’ (i e. Rg X 126 1–8), the hymn beginning with ‘iti’ (i e. Rg X 119) and the hymn addressed to Puruṣa (Rg X 90) He who desires to do away with sins, great and small, should mutter during a year the verse beginning with ‘ava’ (i e ‘ava te heḷo varuṇa namobhiḥ’ Rg I. 24, 14, Tai S I. 5 11 3), or the verse ‘yat kim ca’ (Rg VII 89 5) or the verse ‘iti vā’ (Rg X 119 1) That man who, having accepted a gift that ought not to be accepted, or having eaten forbidden food, mutters the hymn beginning with ‘tarat sa mandı’ (Rg IX 58 1–4)¹⁹ becomes pure after three days He who has committed many sins becomes pure if he recites for a month the hymn beginning with ‘Somā rudrā’ (Rg VI. 74 1–4) and the three verses beginning with ‘Aryamaṇam’ (Rg. IV 2 4–6) while he bathes in a river (and not in a pond or other reservoir of water). One guilty of a grievous offence should mutter the seven verses beginning with ‘Indram’ (Rg I. 106 1–7) A twice-born man removes even very great guilt by offering clarified butter for a year (in fire) with the mantras for the Śākalāhomas (Vāj S VIII 13) or by muttering the mantra ‘nama id-ugram’ (Rg. VI 51. 8) One who is stained by mortal sin becomes pure if with a concentrated mind he attends cows for a year, reciting the Pāvamānī hymns (the whole of Rg. IX) and subsisting on alms ²⁰

So much importance and such occult powers came to be attached to the words of the Ṛgveda that the Ṛgvidhāna of Śaunaka (which is later than Manu) concerns itself with prescribing numerous hymns of the Ṛgveda for the removal of various diseases, of sins, for the conquest of enemieṣ

The Sāma Br I 5 2 says ²¹ generally that when no parti- cular hymns are prescribed for the removal of sins Vedic mantras are powerful and become purifiers if accompanied by tapas and the Sāmans may be repeated for the same purpose from ten times as the minimum to 100 times as prāyaścitta. Gautama 19. 13 prescribes the kind of food on which one should subsist when one is engaged in japa viz. one was to live on milk alone, to eat vegetables only, to eat fruits only, to live on barley gruel prepared from a handful of grain, to eat gold²², to eat clarified butter, and to drink soma and so forth. Gautama 19. 14 further lays down that all mountains, all rivers, holy lakes, places of pilgrimage, the dwellings of sages (rṣis), cowpens and temples of the gods are places (which help to destroy sin).

As the Veda could be studied in and after the sūtra period only by the male members of the first three classes, the japa for the removal of sins 'was not possible for śūdras ; therefore, the Mit. (on Yaj III. 262) says that although the śūdra (and women and those born of pratiloma marriages also) has no adhikāra (power or capacity or authority) for the recitation of Gāyatrī and other Vedic mantras, still the śūdra and women after revolving in the mind the name of the deity put in the dative case can engage in japa with the word namaḥ (i e he can only utter the words 'namo namaḥ' and not om &c) as stated by Gaut Dh S. X 66-67 and Yaj. I 121²³. When Manu IV. 80 says 'let him not explain to a śūdra the sacred law (dharma) nor impose upon him a vrata' all that is meant is, according to the Mit on Yaj. III. 262, that it applies only to a śūdra who does not wait upon or serve higher varṇaṣ Similarly, when Gaut IV. 20 says that those born in the inverse order are outside the pale of the sacred law, the meaning is that saṁskāras like upanayana are not to be performed on theṃ The mystic syllable 'om' is said by Āp Dh S (I 4 13 6) to be the door to heaven and was to be employed before the recitation of any Vedic passage. The Yogasūtra (I. 27) avers 'that om (called praṇava) is expressive of the idea of God and that the repetition of om and revolving the meaning of it in the mind lead to concentratioṇ²⁴

Not only were certain Vedic hymns and passages recommended for recitation with the object of removing sins some works, particularly the Purāṇas, proposed an easy way for all viz. that the remembrance of God Nārāyaṇa (or Hari or Kṛṣṇa) removed all sinṣ The Brahmapurāṇa (chap. 176) contains a stotra (hymn of praise) of Viṣṇu, which when recited is said to free a man from all sins (mental, vocal or bodily). The Pr. V. p 31 quotes a verse from the Bhaviṣyapurāṇa²⁵ and three verses from the Viṣṇupurāṇa as followṣ—'even a great sin is removed by (the resolve of) not doing it again, by gifts, by confessing it to others, and by meditation (on Viṣṇu) and not only by prāyaścittas' (Bhaviṣya); 'of all the expiations (for sins declared by the sages) such as tapas (Cāndrāyaṇa and others) and other actions (japa, homa, gifts) the meditation on Kṛṣṇa is the highest. If a man remembers Nārāyaṇa in the morning, at night, at twilight, at midday and the like, he at once secures the removal of sin' (Viṣṇupurāṇa²⁶ (216. 87-88) gives expression to a popular belief as follows:—“Men, even after committing sins many times through folly, do not go to Hell if they prostrate themselves before Hari who destroys all sinṣ Those men also who always remember Janārdana even by roguery go to the world of Viṣṇu after death.” The Viṣṇupurāṇa affirms that those who contemplate upon the mantra of twelve letters (viz. 'om namo bhagavate Vāsudevāya') do not return to the cycle of births and deathṣ The great power of mantras is mentioned in the Ādiparva (161. 14) by Kunti. The Nṛsimha-purāṇa in chap.18 eulogises the mantra of eight letters (om namo Nārāyaṇāya) and chap. 63.6, states “what is the use of many mantras and the performance of many vratas, when the mantra 'om namo Nārāyaṇāya' is capable of securing all desired objects”. The mantra of five letters 'namaḥ Śivāya' is dealt with in Liṅgapurāṇa (pūrvārdha, chap. 85) and Saura-purāṇa 65. Brahma-purāṇa speaks of vaidika mantras and āgamokta mantras (41. 63). The Nityācāra-paddhati (p. 67) says that it is necessary to understand the meaning of vedic mantras in śrauta rites but in smārta rites it is not so.

Dāna (gifts). Gaut. XIX. 16 provides²⁷ that gold, a cow, a dress, a horse, land, sesamum, clarified butter and food are the gifts (that destroy sin) and may be optionally undergone as penance if no express mention is made thereof. Vaṣ quotes several verses on gifts one of which (29. 16) states: “whatever sin a man distressed for livelihood commits he is purified from that by giving land even if it be as small in extent as 'gocarma'”²⁸. Viṣṇu Dh S. 92.4 is to the same effect. Saṁ-varta²⁹ (204) prescribes that the gifts of gold, cow and land quickly destroy sins even if committed in former lives Medhā- tithi (on Manu XI. 139) remarks that the verse implies that as to sins arising from injury to living beings gifts are the princi- pal expiationṣ The subject of dāna has been dealt with at length in H. of Dh vol II pp. 837-888 A few further remarks may be made here In many inscriptions and copperplate grants of lands or villages the donor usually states that the grant is made for the increase of the merit of himself and of his parents (e g. E. I vol. XI p. 219 at p 221). Bṛhaspati³⁰ as quoted in the Madanaratna (vyavahāra p 66) expressly provides that in land-grants the king should state that he made the gift for securing merit to his parents and to himself³¹ The Rājataraṁgiṇī (I 143)³² refers to the founding of vihāras (monasteries).

Upavāsa (fasting). Fasting strictly means total abstin- ence from food and drink, but generally it means light diet restricted in quantity and also as regards the nature of the articles takeṇ Even the Tai S. (I 6. 7 3-4) refers³³ to three ways of observing vrata on the days of the Darśapūrṇamāsa- either by subsisting only on food available in the village or on forest food or partaking of no food at all. Gaut 19 11 includes upavāsa among the several means of removing sins Tapas is also one of such means acc. to hiṃ But in Gaut. 19 15 as stat- ed above, Gaut includes fasting (anāśaka) among 'tapāṁsi'. Haradatta explains upavāsa³⁴ as giving up the eating of boiled rice (bhaktatyāga) and adds that upavāsa is again included under tapāṁsi to show the great importance attached to it. Haradatta notes that a predecessor of his relying on a Purāṇa passage explained upavāsa in Gaut. 19.11 as ‘restraint of senses’. In many of the Gṛhya sūtras upavāsa means only eating light food prepared from corn usable in sacrifices (such as rice) once in the day excluding vegetables, māsa (pulse), salt and flesh (compare Gobhila gr. I. 5 26, Khādira gr II 1,4 and 6, Kauśika- sūtra I. 31–32, Kāṭhakagṛhya 46.2³⁵). The Bṛ. Up IV. 4. 22 closely associates ‘anāśaka’ (fasting) with tapas as a means to the mystic realisation of the Supreme Soul³⁶. Jaimini (III, 8, 9- 11) appears to regard fasting as tapas³⁷. Manu XI 203 (=Viṣṇu Dh. S. 54.29) provides that fasting (for a day) is the penance for omitting the rites ordained by the Veda (such as the Darśapūrṇamāsa sacrifice and the performance of sandhyā adoration) and for neglecting the special duties of a snātaka (laid down in Manu IV. 34 ff). When a person was observing a fast he had to avoid doing certain other actionṣ Acc to Devala a fast becomes bereft of its good results by drinking water often, by chewing tāmbūla³⁸ by sleep in the day-time and by sexual intercourse³⁸; but the Garuḍapurāṇa I. 128. 6 and Bhāvisya- purāṇa (I. 184 27) allow even when one is fasting the use of flowers, ornaments, rich clothes, garlands, unguents, applying collyrium to the eye and the cleansing of teeth. Dakṣa quoted by the Par M states that if a man observes a fast for the day and night on the day on which the sun first turns towards the north or south, or on the Visuva day (day of equinox), and on an eclipse of the sun or the moon and bathes he is freed from all sins³⁹. Manu XI 166 (=Agnipurāṇa 169.31) prescribes a fast for three days as a penance for theft of grass, firewood, tree, dry food (i e. grains of rice), jaggery, clothes, hide and flesh. The Anuśāsanaparva (106 1) remarks⁴⁰ that men of all varnas and even Mlecchas thought highly of fasts and that chapter contains an exaggerated eulogy of fasting. Almost all religions (except Zoroastrianism) such as the Hebrew, Christian (in Lent) and Moslem (in Ramjan) emphasize the necessity of fasting as a discipline or as a preparation for penitence. The Bhavisyapurāṇa (I, chap 16, 12-14) states that those who have not kindled sacred fires can please the gods by vratas, restraints, gifts and particularly by upavāsas and points out (verses 18-22) what substances (eatables) should be given up from the first to the 15th tithi in each fortnight. In the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa and the śrauta and grhya sūtras the word upavasatha is used in the sense of 'upavāsa' and is derived from 'vas' (to dwell) with 'upa'. Vide H of Dh. vol II. p 1010 and n 2276 for the Śat Br. The Khādira gr II. 1 4, Gobhila gr I. 6 2, Kausika-sūtra I. 31 employ the word upavasatha. Āp Dh S. II 1 1 4–5 prescribe an upavāsa for husband and wife on parvan days and if they cannot totally abstain from food they should eat only once by day food proper for upavāsa. Aparārka p. 199, Smṛ C (śrāddha p 355) and Kṛtyaratnākara quote a verse from Vyāsa deriving the word upavāsa⁴¹. The Āp Dh S. II 5 9–13, Bauḍ Dh II. 7 32, Vas 6 21 and Śān gr. II 16 5 have the same verse viz. 'an āhitāgni, a draught ox and brahmacārin, these three fulfill (their work) by eating, they cannot fulfill their duties by non-eating'. This is explained as not applying to prāyaścittas (Bauḍ Dh Ś II. 7 34) and to fasts on Ekādaśī. The Śāntiparva 323 17 states 'Just as a dirty garment is afterwards cleansed by water, so to those who are heated in (the fire of) fasting inexhaustible happiness for a long time comeṣ' Śānti 79 18, however, says 'merely emaciat-ing the body by fasting is not tapas, but ahimsā, truthfulness, freedom from cruelty, restraint and compassion are tapas'. Tīrthayātrā :–Pilgrimage will be dealt with exhaustively in a later sectioṇ It was believed that going on a pilgrimage and bathing in such holy rivers as the Ganges freed a man from sinṣ Viṣṇu Dh. S. (35.6) lays down that those guilty of mahāpātakas may become pure by Aśvamedha sacrifice or by visiting all the sacred places on the earth. Devala says that a man removes the consequences of such grave sins as the murder of a brāhmaṇa that he may have committed unintentionally by the performance of great sacrifices or by going on a pilgrimage. Parāśara (XII. 58 ff) prescribes⁴² pilgrimage to see Rāma's bridge to Laṅkā for a murderer of a brāhmaṇa who has studied the four Vedaṣ Devala states: ‘a man becomes freed from sin by approaching holy places and shrines, brāhmaṇas that practise austerities, that all rivers that fall into the ocean, all great mountains, all shrines and all forests are holy.’ The Matsyapurāṇa (184.18) says that a heap of sins as big as the mountain Meru or Mandara becomes destroyed when man reaches Avimukta (Benares), The Kūrmapurāṇa⁴³ (pūrvārdha 29.3) says ‘I do not see any other expiation for destroying all sins in the Kaliyuga for all beings except Benāres’. Even in the times of the Peshwas of Poona pilgrimage was prescribed for brāhmaṇa murder (vide ‘Selections from Peshwa Records’, vol. 43 p. 107) and the brāhmaṇas were ordered that after the sinner performed the penance they were to dine with him and recognize that he had been purified In an order dated śake 1659 (1737 AD) the Peshwa Bajirao the first informs the Deshmukhas, Deshpandes and Mukadams that four brothers named Zende approached him with the story that their father was born when their paternal grandmother lived with one Pilaji Zende after she became a widow and that she intended to remarry that man but that had to be postponed owing to famine, that the caste meeting were prepared to take them into the caste and hold them pure if a Government order was issued Then the Peshwa issued an order that they should go to Tulapur on the banks of the Bhīmā river and that they and their male progeny together with their wives should be restored back to the caste and complete association with them as to taking food and marriage be carried on with them from generation to genera- tioṇ⁴⁴ The Pr. Prakāśa quotes a verse from the Bhavisya- purāṇa about the penance for brāhmaṇa murder to the effect that for him who dwells to the north of the Vindhya mountain Parāśara prescribes the sight of Setubandha as a penance and then remarks that a man from the north of Vindhya has to travel 360 yojanas to reach Setubandha and that since 360 Prājāpatya penances are declared to be enough to remove the sin of brahmahatyā, it impliedly follows that each yojana towards a tīrtha is equal to one Prājāpatya. The Smṛtyar- ṇthasāra (pp. 149-150) quotes several verses from the Purāṇas stating that gods like Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva, great sages like Bhṛgu, Vasiṣṭha and Viśvāmitra, great kings like Hariścandra, Naḷa, Sagara obtained greatness by means of tīrthas and that Pāṇḍavas, Śrī Kṛṣṇa, Nārada, Vyāsa and other sages engaged in pilgrimages for securing kingdoms and for removal of evil fortune. This subject of tīrthas will be dealt with at length in a separate sectioṇ