Chapter XX. Vedic Meaning and Procedure of Shāntis

Volume V: Part II pp. 719–747

Chapter XX. Vedic Meaning and Procedure of Shāntis

ŚĀNTI (Propitiatory rites for averting a deity's wrath, a calamity or unlucky event).

CHAPTER XX

Vedic meaning and procedure of Śāntis

The word Śānti is derived from the root ‘śam’, which has several meanings (such as ‘to stop’, ‘to be appeased’, ‘to kill’ rarely) and belongs to the 4th conjugation and also to the 9th. The word Śānti itself does not occur in the Ṛgveda, but it occurs in the Atharvaveda and the Vājasaneya saṃhitā. The root ‘śam’, its several forms and derivatives and the indeclinable particle ‘śam’ occur hundreds of times even in the Ṛgveda. The word ‘śam’ is often conjoined in the Ṛgveda to ‘yoh’ either as ‘śamyoh’ (Ṛg. I, 93.7, I, 106.5, III 17.3, III. 18.4, IV. 12.5, V. 47.7, V. 53.14, V. 69.3, VI. 50.7, VII. 35.1, VII. 69.5, X. 9.4, X. 15.4, X. 37.11, X. 182.1–3) or as ‘śam ca yośca’ (as in Ṛg. I. 114.2, 189.2, II. 33.13, VIII. 39.4, VIII. 71.15). In these places the words are generally rendered as ‘happiness and welfare’ or ‘health and wealth’ (by Keith in translation of Tai. S. II. 6.10.3) and these meanings generally suit the context, e. g. in Ṛg. VI. 50.7 ‘dhāta tokāya tanayāya śam yoh’ (confer on our sons and progeny happiness and welfare), in Ṛg. X. 182 the words ‘athā karad-yajamānāya śam yoh’ (may Bṛhaspati confer happiness and welfare on the sacrificer) occur as the last quarter of all the three verseṣ ‘Śam’ by itself occurs about 160 times in the Ṛgveda and it is somewhat remarkable that in Ṛg. VII. 35. 1–13 ¹ the word śam occurs in each verse from 4 to 7 times (68 times in all). Ṛg. I. 114. 1 ² ‘we bring these lauds to Rudra who is powerful, who has braided hair, who rules over valiant men, so that there may result welfare to our two-footed and four-footed beings and every thing in this village may be prosperous and free from distress’ will bring out the import of ‘śam’. In some cases ‘śam’ and ‘yoh’ clearly appear to be employed like nouns in the objective case. For example, Rg. II. 33. 13 ³ “I hanker after the ‘śam’ and ‘yoh’ of Rudra (i. e. under the power of Rudra), Rg. I. 114.2 “O Rudra! may we secure by your guidance that ‘śam’ and ‘yoh’ that father Manu procured through sacrifice”. Yāska (Nirukta IV. 21) while dealing with Rg. X. 15.4 ‘athā naḥ śam yor-arapo dadhāta’ holds ‘śamyoh’ to be ablative or genitive of śamyu and explains as ‘śamanam ca rogāṇām yāvanam ca bhayānām’ (allaying of diseases and warding off of dangers). This is an etymological explanation and is in some cases accepted by Sāyaṇa and in others he paraphrases ‘śam’ by ‘sukha’ (happiness) and ‘yoh’ by ‘duḥkha-viyoga’ (freedom from pain or distress). The word ‘yoh’ presents the appearance of the ablative or genitive singular of a noun from the root ‘yu’ which means ‘to bind’ or ‘separate’ or from ‘yā’ to go. ‘Yoh’ by itself occurs only three times in the Ṛgveda (i. e. in I. 74. 7, X. 105. 3, X. 176. 3). The meaning of ‘yoh’ in these three cases is doubtful. In the Tai. Br. ⁴ we have the mantra ‘we choose that happiness and wel fare and success (or progress) to the sacrifice and the sacrificer; may divine fortune be ours; let there be good fortune for (our) men; may medicine (or remedy) go up; may there be happiness to our men and quadrupeds’.

In Atharvaveda 19. 9 the word śānti occurs about 17 timeṣ In verses 3 to 5 speech (vāk), the mind (manaḥ) ⁵ and the five senses are referred to and it is said that these seven usually produce what is ghora (terrible or inauspicious) and these same must exert themselves for producing śānti (i. e. appeasement of angered deities or averting calamities or misfortunes). Verses 6-11 pray to several gods, planets (grahāḥ), the earth, falling stars, cows, the nakṣatras, magical rites, Rāhu, Dhūmaketu (comets), the Rudras, Vasus and Ādityas, sages and Bṛhaspati to confer happinesṣ Verse 12 prays to Indra, Brahmā, and all the gods for refuge to the composer of the hymn and 13 declares that ‘whatever things were appeased (by śāntis) in this world—these the seven sages know. May they all be happiness for me; may happiness be mine and may freedom from fear be mine’. Verse 14 which is similar to Vāj. S. 36. 17 declares that ‘the earth, mid-regions, heaven, waters, trees and plants, all gods—these have become appeased and auspicious by the śānti rites performed by the composer and that by those śāntis, by all śāntis I (we) appease (remove the evil effect of ) what is here terrible, what is cruel (or inauspicious), what is evil; may all that be appeased, be beneficial and happy for us’⁶ Atharva 19. 10 (verses 1–10) contains the word ‘śam’ 51 times and prays for welfare to several gods and 19. 11 is also a śānti containing the word ‘śam’ 18 timeṣ The Vājasaneya-saṃhitā chapter 36 (verses 8–12) similarly contain the word ‘śam’ several timeṣ One of these viz. (Vāj. S. 36. 12 ) occurs in many Vedic texts⁷ ‘May the divine waters confer on us happiness, help and protection; may they flow towards us for our happiness and welfare’.

In the Tai. S. the words ‘śamayāti’ and ‘śānti’ are frequently used often in the same passage or context. For example, it is said “Rudra ⁸ is the fierce (or harsh) one among godṣ..: He (the priest) does it as it were a harsh thing when he recites (that passage containing the word ) Rudra; ‘in the path of Mitra’ he says for the sake of appeasing”. There is a similar passage in the Ait. Br. While prescribing the recital of a ṛk verse (Rg. II. 33. 1 ) in the Agnīmāruta-śastra the Ait. Br. changes the original words of the latter half of the verse in the Ṛgveda and also suggests another verse altogether for recital (I. 43. 6 'śam naḥ karatyarvate sugam moṣāya meṣye nṛbhyo nārībhayo gave') because in the first place that verse begins with the auspicious word 'śam' and in the second place because that verse, though the devatā (deity) thereof is Rudra, does not expressly mention that word; the result, says the Ait. Br., is that that verse being one of appeasement (śānti) the priest secures long life and procures long life for the sacrificer.

Another example of 'śamayati' in the Tai. S. is as follows : When an agnihotrin is going on a journey with his household he should offer homa to Vāstoṣpati, but if he goes without offering a homa to Vāstoṣpati evil consequences follow; 'Rudra is indeed Vāstoṣpati; Agni would become Rudra, would leap after him and kill him; (but) when he offers to Vāstoṣpati, he appeases him (Rudra-Agni) with his own share and the sacrificer meets no injury (or distress)'.⁹

Another example of 'śamayati' and 'śānti' in the Tai. S. (VI. 3. 3. 2–3) may be set out. 'O tree! protect it; O axe! do not harm it; the axe indeed is a thunderbolt; (therefore he utters those words) for allaying (the fierce power of the axe); these worlds are afraid of the tree (of which the yūpa is made) when it moves; (therefore he recites 'with thy top do not graze the sky, with thy middle do not harm the atmospheric region'. (By these words) he appeases (removes the terrible power for evil of) this tree'.¹⁰

The foregoing passages are quite sufficient for showing the significance attached to the words 'śam', 'śamayati' and 'śānti' in the Vedic saṃhitāṣ The word 'śāntama' occurs in the Ṛgveda about two dozen timeṣ It is applied to the great gods like Agni, Indra, Soma (I. 16. 7, I. 77. 2, IX. 104. 3), to the praises of gods (I. 76. 1, VI. 32. 1), to the worshipper or singer (VIII. 13. 22), to protection by gods (V. 76. 3, X. 15. 4) and generally means 'beneficent or conferring happiness'. Sini- larly, the word ‘śantāti’ ( Rg. I. 112. 20, VIII. 18. 7) means ‘beneficent’.

The causal ( śamayati) of the verb ‘śam’ and the word ‘śānti’ do not occur in the Ṛgveda, but they are as said above frequently employed in the Taittirīya and other Saṃhitās and in the Brāhmaṇaṣ Some further examples may be set out here. The Tai. S. relates the following legend “Agni was in the yonder world (heaven), the sun was in this world; these worlds were (then) unappeased ( disturbed). The gods said ‘come, let us change ( transpose) these two’. They placed Agni in this world and powerful one, O Agni’; then indeed these two worlds became free from disturbance. Since he repeated those words in this way, it served for the purpose of quieting these worlds ( that were once disturbed ). These worlds became undisturbed (auspicious) for him who knows thiṣ”¹¹¹² Here we have both the verbal form ‘aśāmyatāma’ (from ‘śam’ 4th conj.) and the word ‘śāntyai’.

In some passages of the Ṛgveda the word ‘śamī’ occurs (as In I. 87. 5, II. 31. 6, III. 55. 3, VIII. 45. 27, X. 40. 1.). It is generally interpreted by Sāyaṇa in these passages as the locative singular of ‘śamī’, which is explained to mean ‘karman’ (action, sacrifice or the like). Two of these may be cited here ¹² “my desires fly in many directions; I shall brighten ancient (lauds) towards ‘śamī’ (for employing them in various sacrifices?); knowing the truth in Turvaśa (king) and Yadu (king) he (Indra) enveloped Ahnavāyya (their enemy) in warlike actioṇ” It is possible to take ‘śamī’ as the locative singular of ‘śam’ treated as a nouṇ The word ‘śamī’ occurs in many passages of the Ṛgveda (I. 20. 2, I. 83. 4, I. 110. 4, II. 1. 9, III. 60. 3, IV. 3. 4, IV. 17. 18, IV. 22. 8, IV. 33. 4, V. 77. 4, V. 42. 10, VI. 3. 2, VI. 52. 1, VIII. 75. 14, IX. 74. 7, X. 28. 12). In all these passages Sāyana interprets it as 'karma' and not as the 'śami tree or branch'. But in one place at least (if not in more places) the word śami can easily be held to mean 'the śami wood or fuel-stick'.¹³ 'To that mortal who worships with sacrifices and appeases with 'śamis' (śami fuel-sticks) and gives offerings to Agni that abounds in wealth disappointment as to glory never comes nor does sin nor arrogance overtake hiṃ'

The whole of chapter 36 of the Vājasaneya-saṃhitā is employed as śānti at the beginning and end of the Pravarqya rite, according to Kāt. Śr. S. 26. 41 'śāntikaraṇam-ādyantayoḥ'; verses 9–12 of Vāj. S. 36 employ the word 'śam' 17 times and verse 9 is the same as Ṛgveda I. 90. 9.

An interesting text in connection with the root 'śam' is the adhrigu praiṣa, to be recited by the Hotṛ priest before the paśu is killed in a sacrifice. Vide H. of Dh. vol. II. p. 1121 note 2504 for the formula which is rather long. The important¹⁴ words for the present purpose are at the beginning and at the end 'O divine slayers and human slayers! begin (the process of killing the paśu). ...O Adhrigu! you should slay (the paśu) in such a way that it would be properly carried out'. Here the root (śam) certainly means to slay; this meaning is, however, apparently quite different from the one so far considered (viz. to appease, to remove evil effects). But it may be that there is a secondary meaning, viz. appease the gods by offering parts of the animal killed in the sacrifice.

The Taittirīya-brāhmaṇa closely connects the śami tree or branch with the conjuring away or appeasing the terrible or angry aspects of deities in the following myth:¹⁵ "Prajāpati created Agni; he (Prajāpati) became afraid 'this Agni might burn me'. He (Prajāpati) pacified (the terrible flame or glow of) Agni with śamī (branch); that is the beneficent or happy aspect of śamī in that the equipment required for Agni is full of śamī in order to appease Agni and for freedom from being burnt thereafter. The idea is that Agni, the moment it was created had a fierce and evil aspect, that was removed by the use of the śamī and śānti means an action or rite that appeases the evil aspects of a deity and makes the deity beneficent. Similarly, the Aitareya-brāhmaṇa says:¹⁶ "He recites the verse 'they worship you with offerings whatever abodes you may have;...he says: O Soma! move towards houses in such a way as not to kill the sons (of the sacrificer).' Houses are indeed called 'duryā' and the house of the sacrificer is afraid of the king Soma when he approaches the sacrificer's house; when he (the priest) repeats this (verse) he thereby appeases him (king Soma) by a śānti (propitiatory rite); he (Soma) becoming beneficent (by the respotition of the mantra) does not kill the progeny or the cattle (of the sacrificer)." The idea is that king Soma might be angry with the sacrificer if there be any defect in the sacri- ficial rite and that when the hotṛ priest repeats the verse 'avirahā o-' that verse is the cause of appeasement.

In the Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa there is a similar reference to the appeasing power of the śamī branch. "He (the priest) places fuel sticks on this (Agni). ... He places (on Agni) a fuel stick of śamī as the first. This (Agni) was kindled when this oblation (of śamī branch) was offered and flamed upwardṣ The gods became afraid of him (Agni) lest Agni might harm theṃ They (gods) saw this śamī branch and appeased him (Agni) with that; inasmuch as they appeased this (Agni) by means of śamī (branch) this is called śamī. In the same way this sacrificer appeases with śamī this (Agni) for procuring appeasement and not for food"¹⁷ It would be noticed that here the name 'śānti' is derived from the root 'śam' and it is the means of effecting śānti (appeasement).

In the Brāhmaṇas the means of appeasement are various but simple. Often times the recitation of a Vedic verse or hymn effects śānti. For example, the Taittirīya-brāhmaṇa¹⁸ prescribes the singing of sāmans at the time of consecrating the sacred śrauta fires; the three sāmans are Rathantara, Vāmadevya and Bṛhat, each being connected with the three worlds respec- tively. "When Agni is being taken out, he sings the Vāmadevya sāman; Vāmadevya is the atmospheric region and thereby (i. e. by singing Vāmadevya) he makes Agni established in the atmospheric region; Vāmadevya is śānti (means of bring- ing about the appeasement of Agni); (on singing Vāmadevya) he takes out Agni that has become appeased (beneficent) and as bestower of cattle". The Tai. S. says¹⁹ "he says 'weave ye with regular measure the work of the singers'. Whatever super- fluity (or flaw) is committed in the sacrifice, this (recitation) serves to eradicate its evil effects". The Ait. Br. provides "(the priest) who is about to sprinkle holy water over him²⁰ (the king) should (himself first recite the mantra and) make the king repeat it (after him) 'O Waters! look on me with a beneficent eye, (and) touch my skin with (your) beneficent body. I invoke all the Agnis that dwell in waters for your sake; this should be done for the purpose that waters (the evil aspects appeased may not destroy the vigour of him who is being sprinkled over". The Hotṛ performs a japa before and after reciting the sāmidhenī verseṣ About this the Sāṅkhāyana-brāhmaṇa says²¹ that the sāmidhenīs are a thun-

mahāvīra (in Pravargya rite) of the hot milk for the Dharma offering were to be stolen by a thief, one should offer in the Gārhapatya fire an oblation of ghee with the sruva ladle to the accompaniment of the mantra ‘May Day and Night disclose thee as thief’²². ‘If a wild forest dog were to bark (while the Pravargya rite is on), the priest should repeat by way of a magic formula the text ‘vi gā Indra vicaran spāṣayasva’ (O Indra, observe the cows while you move about’), should cast a kindled firebrand on both sides with the words ‘O Agni, converse with Agni, and then he worships Agni with the words ‘O Agni, salutation to thee once, twice, thrice &c.’ If a vulture screeches he recites the formula ‘you are undistinguishable (from other birds) since you have blood in your beak’, if an owl or she-owl hoots he recites the mantra ‘In this way the owl approaches &c.’. Therefore it may be said that śānti is used in the early Vedic texts in several senses viz. (1) the state of being freed from evil aspects or effects, (2) means of appeasing or removing evil aspects, such as water, a Vedic verse or hymn, (3) rite for appeasement.

Apart from the simple śāntis for appeasing deities in sacri- ficial matters, even the Ṛgveda contains indications that there were other occurrences which were thought to be unlucky and against the supposed evil effects of which some remedies were employeḍ For example, Ṛg. X. 164 (1-5) is a hymn declared by the Anukramaṇī and Ṛgvidhāna IV. 20. 1 as counteracting the indications of bad dreamṣ²³ Verse 3 of it is ‘May Agni place far away from us all evil and undesirable actions which we may have done while awake or asleep whether by our desires or imprecations or want of desire’. In Ṛg. V. 82. 4-5²⁴ the poet prays 'O God Savitri! today produce for us welfare endowed with progeny and frighten away the effects of bad dreams; O God Savitri! drive away all sins (or evils) and confer on us what is beneficent' (or auspicious). In Rg. II. 28. 10 the poet prays 'O king Varuna! whoever, whether a helper or a friend, declares to me who ascertained a danger (from what I saw) in a dream or whoever, a thief or a wolf, intends to harm me, from that guard us'. In Rg. VIII. 47. 15 the sage exclaims 'we deliver all our bad dreams to Trita Āptya; your kindness cannot be obstructed by any one, the protection given by you is good'. Vide also Rg. VIII. 47. 14, 16-18, X. 36. 4, X. 37. 4 for bad dreamṣ Similarly, the Ṛgveda contains verses which show that cries of birds were deemed to indicate coming good or evil and the hooting of the owl was thought to be unlucky. 'It ²⁵ (the bird) frequently cries and proclaims what is to come and it propels his speech as an oarsman propels a boat; O bird! May you be auspicious to us; may no overpowering (or unfavourable) phenomenon reach you from any side'. The three verses of Rg. II. 43 refer to the cries of birdṣ 'The birds, chirping, utter cries towards the south (of the house) like composers of songs that speak for food at various seasons; O bird! when you chirp, speak what would be to our welfare, what good thoughts about us; when flying up (from our house) you utter (cries) like a lute; may we be endowed with valiant sons and speak much in assemblies'. Rg. X. 165 contains several verses about a kapota bird and one about an owl. Rg. X. 165. 1 and 4 are: ²⁶ 'a kapota bird, messenger of ill-luck, has come to this our house, with whatever (evil) intent; we worship you, we shall perform atonement; O God! May it fare well with our men and quadrupedṣ May what the owl expresses (by its hooting ) turn out to be fruitless or (untrue). What the kapota bird (expresses) by placing its feet near our Agni (be untrue); here is salutation to Yama, the god of Death, whose messenger is this (bird) sent (by the god)'. The Āśvalāyana-gṛhya provides if a kapota (pigeon) strikes against a house (enters it) or flies along its length, the house-holder should offer into fire oblations (of ghee) with each verse of the hymn ('devāḥ kapota', Rg. X. 165) or he should recite it inaudibly'. The Kausitaki-gṛhya provides for the same (in V. 5.1-2) and proceeds²⁷ "if a man sees a bad dream or when the cawing of a crow is heard in the night: and in the case of other adbhutas (untoward or unusual occurrences) he should cook rice grains in the milk of a cow that has a calf of the same colour (as itself) but in no case of a black cow and let him sacrifice with the hymn to Night (Rg. X 127) verse by verse and having partaken of the remnants of the oblations with the `mahan-yāhrtis` and having recited over his ears the verse `bhadram karnebhih` (Rg. I. 89.8) and over himself the verse `śatam-in-ru` (Rg. I. 89.9) donate something to the brāhmaṇas". The Śāṅkhāyana-gṛhya (V. 6, 7, 10 and 11) provides: "if a disease befalls a person, he should offer boiled Gavedhuka grains with the hymn 'these prayers to the powerful Rudra' &c. verse by verse (Rg. I. 114). If the honey bees make honey in a man's house, he should fast and sacrifice a hundred and eight pieces of udumbara wood besmeared with curds, honey and ghee with two verses Rg. I.114. 8-9 and murmur the hymn (Rg. VII. 35) and if an ant-hill arises in his house the house should be abandoned and having fasted three nights (and days) he should perform the 'Mahāśānti'.²⁸ The Aitareya-Āraṇyaka mentions ten dreams viz. a person sees a dark man with black teeth and such a man kills him, or a boar kills him, or an ape jumps on him, the wind carries him swiftly; having swallowed gold, he vomits it; he eats honey; he chews stalks of lotuscs; he carries a single (red) lotus; he drives with a team of asses or boars; himself wearing a wreath of nalada flowers,²⁹ he drives towards the south a black cow having a black calf. If a man sees any one of these, he should fast, cook a dish of rice in milk in a vessel, offer into fire oblations thereof with each of the verses of the hymn to Night (Rg. X 127. 1–8), feed brāhmaṇas with other food (cooked in the house) and should himself eat boiled rice.³⁰ The same Āraṇyaka mentions in the same context some unusual phenomena such as the sun appearing like the moon (pale and without heat) or the sky becoming like madder and prescribes the recital of some Rgvedic verses (such as IX. 67. 21–27, VIII. 6. 30, IX. 113. 6–11, I. 50. 10).

The Chāndogya Up. contains a verse saying 'if a person engaged in rites for securing a certain desired object sees a woman in a dream, one should understand on seeing such a sight that he will prosper (i. e. secure that object).'³¹ The Chāndogya Upaniṣad (VIII. 10. 1), the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad (IV. 3. 7–20) and Praśna IV. 5 contain profound thoughts on the psychology of dream phenomena, but as that discussion would not be relevant in the section on śānti nothing can be said here beyond quoting three striking passageṣ³²

The Atharvaveda also has several verses on dreams and on birds like kapota (pigeon). The Kauśikasūtra prescribes several verses of the Atharvaveda as śāntis in seeing a dream a man washes his face with the verses (Atharva VI. 45. 1 and 46. 1); if he sees a very terrible dream he offers into fire a cake of mixed grains³³ or in another direction (in his enemy's field); he changes the side on which he sleeps with Atharva VII. 100. 1; on seeing himself eating in a dream he recites the mantra (Atharva VII. 101. 1) and he looks on with the verse ‘vidma te’ (Atharva VI. 46. 2) all (dreams) vanish.' Two of these verses may be set out here: ‘O dream! we know the place of thy birth: thou art the son of gods' sisters; thou art the helper of Yama: thou art the destroyer; thou art death; O dream! we know thee to be so; O dream! do thou save us from evil dreams': 'I turn round (and lie on my other side) from evil dreaming, from bad dreaming, from ill-luck; I make brahman (vedic prayer) my defence; I put away the sorrows that come through dreamṣ'³⁴ The Kātyāyana-śrauta-sūtra prescribes a similar verse for japa when a diksit sees a disagreeable dreaṃ³⁵ The Āpastamba-grhya (8. 23. 9) lumps together several unusual appearances and provides the same śānti in the case of all, ‘If the post of a man’s house puts forth shoots, or if honey is made in his house by bees or if the footprint of a pigeon is seen on the hearth or if disease arises in his family, or in the case of other miracles and prodigies, let him perform on the newmoon night, at dead of night, at a place where he does not hear the sound of water, the rites from the putting of wood on the fire to the Ājyabhāga oblations indicated in the next (Āpas-tambiyamanrtrapātha II. 22. 14–23), and then perform Jaya and following oblationṣ’ Very similar provisions are found in Jaiminiya-grhya II. 7.³⁶ The Sāmavidhānabrāhmaṇa contains several prāyaścittas (really śāntis) on the happening of numerous incidentṣ A few examples are set out here; when bad dreams¹¹⁷⁰ are seen, the person should make repetition of Rg. V. 82. 4 twice (i. e. in all at least six times); in the case of any other prognosticatory occurrence not known from any work the person should repeat twice the verse Rg. IV. 31. 1. On seeing one’s enemies with weapons raised to strike, the person should revolve in his mind the Devavrata verse, then (the enemies) would not kill hiṃ If one's house were to be burnt ³⁷ (accidentally) one should offer oblations anointed with ghee with the mantra 'born with the highest Dharman' (Sāmaveda no 90) and with words 'svāhā to Agni'. In II. 2. 2 The Sāmavidhāna Br. prescribes a śānti for one seized or possessed by an evil spirit. A portion of Şaḍvimśabrāhmaṇa (viz. V. 1–10) is styled Adbhuta-brāhmaṇa and contains śāntis for several kinds of utpātaṣ Some parts of it (such as V. 2–3) correspond with Āśvalāyana-gṛhya-pariśiṣṭa 4. 11–15. The Şaḍvimśa-brāhmaṇa V. 7. 2. provides for earthquakes and cracks in palaces, which are similar to Yoga-yātrā 3. 13. The Atharvaveda 19. 9. 9 refers to showers of fall-ing stars (nakṣatramulkābbhihatam sam-astu nah) and Şaḍ-vimśa V. 9. 2. refers to falling meteors and V. 10. 2. to images laughing, weeping &c.

Reasons of space forbid further description of śāntis from the gṛhya-sūtraṣ

The preceding discussion with regard to śāntis is enough to show that śāntis were prescribed in the Vedic literature, the śrautasūtras, Sāmavidhāna-brāhmaṇa and Ṛgvidhāna, not only for appeasing the angry divinities or powers of evil, but also for occurrences like bad dreams or of portentous phenomena like the sun's or moon's appearance, the cries of unlucky birds &c.

This subject about śāntis against all sorts of omens and portents was very much elaborated in the post-Vedic literature. An extensive literature on śāntis exists in the Gṛhyasūtras, the Kauśika-sūtra, the Atharvaveda Pariśiṣṭas (particularly Noṣ V, XXXI on Koṭihoma, XXXIII on Ghṛtakambala, XXXVII on 'samuccayaprāyaścittam', resembling 13th chapter of Kauśika, LVIII to LXVII on utpātas, adbhutaśāntis and dreams, LXXI and LXXII, the Purāṇas (like Matsya 92–93 and 228–238, Viṣṇu-dharmottara I. 90–105, II. 124–127, II. 159–164. Mārkaṇḍeya chap. 40, Agni 149, 164, 167, 259–268, 290–91, 320–324, Bhaviṣya IV. 141–145, Brahmāṇḍa III. 38. 30–34, the Bṛhatsamhitā chap. 45, the Śāntika-pauṣṭika-kāṇḍa of the Kṛtyakalpataru (Mṣ in Baroda Oriental Institute), the Adbhutasāgara of Ballālasena and his son Lakṣmaṇasena (commenced to be written in śaka 1089 i. e. 1167 A.D.), the Śānti section of the Madanaratna (mṣ in the Anup Sanskrit Library, Bikaner), Jyotistattva of Raghunandana. (pp. 704 ff), the Śāntikamalākara of Kamalākarabhatta (mṣ in Bhau Daji collection of the Bombay Asiatic Society), Śānti- mayūkha of Nīlakaṇṭha. Of these the Adbhutasāgara is a very extensive work of 751 pages, edited by Pandit Murlidhar Jha and published by Prabhakari &c, Banares, in 1905 A. D. The Kṛtyakalpataru on Śāntis has not yet been edited and published in the Gaikwad Oriental Serieṣ As compared with some other kāṇḍas, the section on śānti is meagre. It deals only with the following; Kūrmavibhāga (the distribution of the countries in Bhārata in 9 groups); Graha-makha or Grahayāga quoting Yaj. I. 295–308, Matsya, Narasiṁha and Bhaviṣya and Devīpurāṇa; Ayutahoma, Koṭihoma; Pusyasnāna; Grahaśānti; Mātṛśānti; Liṅgaśānti; Vināyakaśānti (quoting Yaj. I. 271–294 and Matsya); Grahanasnāna; Saṅkrāntisnāna; mṛtavatsābhiṣeka; śāntis for various utpātas; Gāyatrīhoma; Rudrajapavidhi; ābhicārikakarma (magic rites). It is neither possible nor necessary to deal with this vast mass on śānti in this work in detail. Many of the śāntis described therein and in older śrauta and other works have been almost obsolete for a long time. Therefore, only a few śāntis now in vogue or very interesting from several viewpoints will be dealt with in this sectioṇ³⁸

The Kauśikasūtra (chapter 13, kaṇḍikās 93–136) is concerned with adbhutas, their descriptions and the śāntis therefor. Kaṇḍikā 93 brings together 42 portentous phenomena and the kaṇḍikās that follow deal with the description of the omen or portent and śāntis for each of these. In these śāntis, Atharva- veda mantras play a secondary role and the majority of the mantras form an independent mantra material. It should be noted that at the end all these śāntis are spoken of as 'prāyaścitta'.

The subjects treated of in the Madanaratna (about 1425 to 1450 A. D.) on Śāntika-pauṣṭika would indicate how extensive was the cult of śāntis recommended in medieval timeṣ The Anukramaṇikā at the beginning of the Mṣ mentions the following : Vināyakasnāna; śāntis to placate the nine planets from the Sun to Ketu; Śanaiścarvṛata; śāntis to placate Saturn (extracted from Skanda (Nāgarakhaṇḍa and Prabhāsakhaṇḍa ); worship of Jupiter and Venus; Śāntis based on the Yāmalas ³⁹ on the conjunction of five or more planets; Grahasnānas from Viṣṇudharmottara; śāntis of the tithi and weekday when fever and other diseases seize a man; Nakṣatrasānti; śāntis for the nine nakṣatras called Janma and the rest (vide note 772 for these nine nakṣatras); śāntis for birth on Amāvasyā, or on Mūla, Āśleṣā or Jyeṣṭhā nakṣatra; śānti for birth on the same nakṣatra as that of the father or (elder) brother; śāntis for birth on Gaṇḍa, Vaidhṛti, Vyatipātayoga, Saṅkrānti, Viṣaṇāḍi, eclipses; śānti called Gomukhaprasava; śāntis declared for the protection of the foetus from the first and following months from conception; bali offerings; medicine for removing pains of the foetus; measures for easy delivery; for protection of the child after birth; bali on first day with mantras &c.; nirājana &c., description of sprinkling the infant with holy water, satiating gods and pitṛs with water, homas, yantras (mystical diagrams); general rules about the rites on the 1st to the 12th day after birth and in the first and following months of the first year after birth; applying ointments, fumigation, baths with mantras when a child is seized (or possessed) by an evil spirit; homa with dūrvās and homa for long life; śānti for adbhutas and śāntis for strange occurrences about images, Agni, trees, rainfall, reservoirs of water, for strange births, for birth of twins, for strange happenings about implements, beasts, collapse of temples and houses; śāntis for various utpātas and adbhutas; śāntis about kapota bird and on seeing the coitus of crows; śāntis relating to fall on one's body of the house lizard and chameleon; śāntis on impurity due to births and deaths; śāntis relating to horses and elephants; śāntis on weekdays; mahāśānti; Navagrahamakha; rules about Ayutahoma and its procedure, and about Lakṣahoma and Koṭihoma from Narasimhapuraṇa, Devipurāṇa and Bhaviṣyapurāṇa; ³⁸ Vasor-dhāra from Devipurāṇa. The adbhutas mentioned in Kāuśika-sūtra are : showers ( of ghee, honey, meat, gold, blood and other terrible showers ); yakṣas like apes, beasts, crows appearing in the form of human beings); croaking of two frogs; wrangling of family members; earth-quake; eclipse of the sun; eclipse of the moon; auṣasī (day-break, morning ?) does not go up; when samū (year ?) becomes terrible; when there is fear of inundations; when brāhmaṇas are armed; when images of gods dance, fall down, laugh, sing or present other forms; where two ploughshares get entangled; where two ropes or two threads (become entangled); where one Agni comes in contact with another; when a cow gives birth to twins; when a mare, or a she-ass or a woman⁴¹ (gives birth to twins); when cows yield bloody⁴² milk; when a bull sucks the udder of another cow; where (a person) smells at ākāśapheṇa (white scuttle fish bone supposed to be sea-foam); when ants behave in an unusual way; when blue⁴³ bees act in an unusual way; where the honey bees act in an unusual way; when an adbhuta happens not known before (or that surpasses all previous records); when anything is torn (or shattered in pieces) in a village, residence, shed for sacred fires or meeting hall; when water spurts up in a waterless place; where sesame yield equal oil (?); where sacrificial offerings are polluted by being touched by birds, two-footed animals and quadrupeds; when the locks of hair (of a boy or girl) turn towards the left; when the sacrificial post strikes shoots; when a meteor is seen falling by day; when a comet darkens the Great Bear; when the nakṣatras fall frequently (from the sky );⁴⁴ when a bird alights (on one's house) with flesh in its beak; when a light flashes without there being any fire; where Agni seems to breathe (or hiss) as it were; where clarified butter, oil or honey trickles; where village fire burns down a house; where accidental fire burns one's house; where a bamboo splits open with a sound; where a jar splits in a reservoir of water or a pan (when put on fire) splits or a vessel in which barley is put splitṣ⁴⁵ It would be impossible for reasons of space and also of use- fulness to set out the śāntis prescribed for the above adbhutas in Kauśika, but a few may be described by way of illustratioṇ When there is an earthquake ¹¹⁷⁷ one should offer (oblations of ghee) with five verses, three of which are addressed to Jiṣṇu (Viṣṇu). Three of the verses are: “Just as the sun shines brightly in the heaven, Vāyu dwells in the sky and Agni enters the earth, so may this Jiṣṇu be firm and unmoving. As the rivers day and night pour their sediment (clay or mud carried by them) in the sea without fail, similarly may all tribes of gods (?) with one mind approach my invocation (or sacri- fice) without fail; may the Goddess (Earth) along with all deities be firm and unmoving for me and may (the Goddess) drive away from us all evil and pierce my enemies that hate me.” After having offered oblations with the words 'svāhā to the earth' he should offer oblations with the verses Atharva VI. 87. 1, VI. 88. 1 and with the verses of the anuvāka beginning with Atharva XII. 1. 1. This is the prāyaścitti there (in case of an earthquake).

Where darkness seizes the sun, one should offer oblations with the verses ' arranging according to the season divine wonders, ( the sun ) rises up revolving ( driving away ) the fierce ( aspects ) of the several seasons; may the sun passing over these on all sides come; may the Waters move along in all these worldṣ May Indra and Agni, knowing well, protect thee with herbs ( remedies ); destroy all darkness according to the cosmic order and by true speech.' Having offered oblations with the words 'svāhā to the sun', he should again make oblations ( in Agni) with the hymn Atharva XVII. 1. He worships with the Rohita hymns ( Atharva XIII. 1-4). This is the prāyaścitti in this case. When the (darkness) floods the moon one should offer oblation into fire with the verse⁴⁹ “Rāhu creeps over the shining king (the moon), the former (Rāhu) strikes him (the moon) here (i. e. before us); a thousand of his (Rāhu’s) bodies are to be destroyed; may (his) one hundred bodies perish!”. Having offered oblations with the words ‘svāhā to, the Moon’, he should offer oblations with the hymn ‘Śakadhumam nakṣatrāṇi yad- rājānam-akurvata’ (Atharva VI. 128. 1). This is the prāyaścitta in this case.⁵⁰

In connection with śāntis three words require to be carefully understood viz. adbhuta, utpāta and nimitta. Adbhuta is an ancient worḍ It occurs several times in the Ṛgveda and is generally applied to some gods in the sense of ‘wonderful’. In some passages, however, it means ‘future’ and possibly also ‘portentous’. For example, according to Nirukta I. 5⁵¹ the sage Agastya first promised to offer an offering to Indra, but later he desired to offer the same to the Maruts, that then Indra came to Agastya and complained to him as in Ṛg. I. 170. 1 (what was promised today) even that does not exist, nor will it (the havis) be there (for me) tomorrow; who knows (for certain) what will happen in future'. Yāska paraphrases ‘adbhuta’ by the word 'adbhūta' (that has not taken place) and remarks that the word 'adbhuta' in popular speech also means 'something that has not happened before'. Rg. I. 25. 11⁵² says 'the intelligent man expects from this (Varuṇa) all wonders (or portentous happenings), whether already performed or to be performed'. Rg. X. 105. 7 is perhaps a little clearer than the preceding. ‘(May Indra reduce our sins) Indra who is golden-bearded, who has tawny horses, whose jaw is never broken and who made against the dasyu for easily killing him a thunderbolt like the sky that is wonderful (or full of portents)’. The word usually employed in the Gr̥hyasūtras is adbhuta and the śāntis are called ‘adbhutaśāntis’. Adbhuta is a word of very general import. It includes not only such serious phenomena as earth-quakes, eclipses, comets, falling stars but such comparatively minor yet unexpected or unusual happenings as a cow yielding blood-red milk or a cow sucking the udder of another cow. The ancient writer Vr̥ddha-Garga defines ‘adbhuta’ as any occurrence that had not occurred before or a total change coming over what has occurred before.⁵³ The 67th Atharvaṇa-pariśiṣṭa is called Adbhutaśānti (pp. 432-435). It distributes ‘adbhutas’ into seven groups relating to Indra, Varuṇa, Yama, Agni, Kubera, Viṣṇu and Vāyu and names some adbhutas under each such as a rainbow at night (relating to Indra), a vulture or owl alighting on a man’s house or a kapota entering it (relating to Yama), smoke without fire (relating to Agni), eclipse on the nakṣatra of a man’s birth (relating to Viṣṇu) and prescribes as śānti the japa of Atharvaśiras, making brāhmaṇas say 'svasti,' honouring and feeding brāhmaṇaṣ That pariśiṣṭa is based on the Adbhutabrāhmaṇa of the Sāmaveda.

The word ‘utpāta’ is rare in the Srauta or Gr̥hya sūtraṣ The Gautamadharma-sūtra, after enjoining upon the king to select a learned, well-conducted brāhmaṇa as his purohita, provides that the king should give heed to what astrologers and interpreters of omens tell (him) and that the purohita should perform śānti rites, rites for prosperity (such as vāstu-homa) and magic rites (on behalf of the king⁵⁴). But in the Purāṇas and the medieval Sanskrit works it is far more frequent than the word adbhuta; sometimes adbhūta and utpāta are used as synonymṣ Garga says⁵⁵ 'deities become unfavourable owing to the wrong doings of men and create extraordinary happenings in the sky, atmospheric region and on the earth. These are the utpātas for all worlds created by gods; these utpātas sally forth for the destruction (of people) and they by their (terrific) appearances rouse people (to do what is proper).’ Here the words 'adbhuta' and 'utpāta' are used as synonymṣ Similarly, Matsya (228. 1–2) appears to regard the two words as synonymṣ⁵⁶ Generally, however, the word utpāta denotes occurrences that portend evil to all. Amarakośa treats 'ajanya', ‘utpāta’ and ‘upasarga’ as synonymṣ Utpāta is defined by Garga, Varāhamihira⁵⁷ and Atharva-pariśiṣṭa LXIV as the reverse of the usual natural order. Nimitta means, according to Amarakośa (nimittam hetulakṣmaṇaḥ) 'cause or prognostic sign'. Nimitta may be auspicious or inauspiciouṣ This is one distinction between utpāta (which generally denotes an unlucky portent) and nimitta. There is another distinctioṇ Nimitta is often restricted to the throbbing of a person's limbs (as in Matsya chap. 241), though here and there it is used in a wider sense as in Gītā (I. 31) ('nimittāni ca paśyāmi viparītāni Keśava' 'O Keśava! I see adverse omens), Rāmāyaṇa, Ayodhyākāṇḍa. 4. 17–19, Bhīṣma-parva 2. 16–17, Virāṭa 46. 30, Atharva-pariśiṣṭa LXIV (Utpāta-lakṣaṇa) 10. 9–10. ⁵⁹ It may be noted that Manu VI. 50 mentions 'utpāta' and 'nimitta' separately (p. 527 note 758).

Examples of unfavourable happenings (nimittas or utpātas) occur plentifully in the Mahābhārata, Sabhāparva 80. 28–31, 81. 22–25, Vanaparva 179. 41, 224. 17–18, Virāṭa 39. 4–6, 46. 24–32, Udyoga 84. 4–9, 156. 28–30, Bhīṣma 2. 17–33, 3. 65–74, 19. 36–38, 99. 21–28, 112. 6–12, Droṇa 7. 34–41, 77. 3–7, Śalya 23. 21–24, 56. 8–14, 192. 17–21, Mauśala 1. 1–5, 2. 1–17 and the Rāmāyaṇa, Ayodhyā 4. 17–19, Araṇyakāṇḍa 23. 1–7 and 10–25, Yuddhakaṇḍa 10. 14–20, 23. 4–11, 35. 25–35, 41. 13–20, 53. 32, 65. 47–51, 95. 43, 96. 40–44. The chief utpātas and adbhūtas, are: terrible dreams, roar of contending winds i. e. hurricanes (nirghāta), meteors, she-jackals howling towards the south, fierce and dry wind with shower of sand; earth-quakes; sun eclipse at an unusual time (Rāmāyaṇa III. 23. 12, Sabhā 80. 29, 81. 23 Śalya 56. 10, Bhīṣma 3. 28); flashes of lightning without clouds; carnivorous birds like vultures and crows on temples; fort-walls and bastions; spontaneous fire; rent banners; halo of the sun and moon; river-flowing with bloody waters; rain with-out clouds, rain of blood or mud; trumpeting of elephants; sky filled with darkness; horses shedding tears; peals of thunder in a clear sky, rivers flowing in reverse direction; throbbing of the left arm and eye (in men); croaking of frogs; sea lashed into fury; images of gods trembling, dancing, laughing or weeping (Bhīṣma 113. 11); pale sun, birds like pigeons and mūṣās and deer weeping with face towards the sun; appearance of a headless trunk near the sun; strange births such as ass born of a cow, mouse born of an ichneumon (Yuddhakaṇḍa 35. 30). The auspicious signs described in the epics, are comparatively few as in Bālakāṇḍa 22.4, Udyoga 83. 23-26, 84. 117, Bhīṣma 3. 65-74, Śānti 52. 25, Āśvamedhika 53. 5-6. The principal auspicious signs are: clear sky without clouds, wind blowing⁶⁰ cool and pleasant to the skin, no dust raised, birds and animals proceeding to a man's right side, fire without being enveloped in smoke and with flames turned towards the right, shower of flowers, auspicious birds like ṛṣa, krauñca, peacock sending up chirpings to the right (Karṇa 72. 12-13).

The omens and portents mentioned in the two epics are generally described as occurring at certain important times and events, e. g. on the eve of battles or when Daśaratha proposed that Rāma be crowned as yuvarāja, or when Pāṇḍavas started on their exile into the forest or when Bhīṣma was anointed as commander-in-chief of the Kaurava hosts or when Arjuna vowed that he would kill Jayadratha before sunset. There is no gradation or order in mentioning the omens and portents in these two works, but they are set out hell-hell. Untimely rain, thunder without clouds, croaking of frogs are on the same level and uttered in the same breath with eclipseṣ But Garga,⁶¹ Parāśara, Sabhā-parva, Bṛhatsaṁhitā 45. 2, Matsyapurāṇa 229.5, Atharva-pariśiṣṭa LXIX (1. 2) and other works divide utpātas into three classes, viz. divya (arising from heavenly bodies), āntarikṣa (springing in the sky or atmospheric region) and bhauma (that appear on the earth). This classification is ancient enough. The Atharvaveda⁶² expressly refers to the three classes of utpātas ‘May the earthly and atmospheric utpātas and the planets moving in heaven confer welfare on us’. The Bṛhatsaṁhitā⁶³ says that it is the king’s business to arrange for śāntis in his kingdom for counteracting (the consequences of portents). Garga⁶⁴ declared that those who, when advised by brāhmaṇas for performing śāntis, perform auspicious rites with faith do not suffer defeat, but that those who having no faith or because of atheism or resentment do not perform rites for counteracting (omens) perish in a short time. Garga, the Bṛhatsaṁhitā, Matsya 229. 6–9, Agni 263. 12–13 furnish examples of the three kinds of utpātas,⁶⁵ viz. the divya ones are concerned with the abnormal conditions of planets and nakṣatras, eclipses, comets; those of atmospheric regions are hurricanes, unusual clouds, fall of meteors, twilights, preternatural reddish appearances of the quarters, halo, Fata Morgana (appearance of illusory town in the air), rainbow and strange rainfall (such as of blood-red water, or fall of rain with fishes, tortoises &c.); those of the earth are earth-quake and unusual states of water reservoirṣ The Brhatsamhitā remarks that the evil consequences of earthly ( bhauma ) utpātas when counteracted with śāntis are removed, the evil consequences of utpātas from the atmospheric regions are reduced to a mild form (by śāntis), while, according to some ( ācāryas like Kāśyapa, says Utpala ) divya utpātas are not counteracted by śāntis at all; the opinion of Varāhamihira himself appears to be that the consequences of even divya utpātas are conjured away by the gifts of plenty of gold, food, cows and land and by spilling the milk of cows on the ground or in a Rudra temple and by performing Kotihoma. Varāhamihira and Matsya further provide that daiva utpāta has evil effects (lit. bears fruit) in eight ways, viz. on the king himself, his son, his treasury, his conveyances (horses, elephants &c,), his capital, his queen, purohita and his people.⁶³

Numerous śāntis bearing different names are prescribed in Matsya, by Varāhamihira and otherṣ The 18 śāntis prescribed in Matsya (228)⁶⁶ and bearing the names of several gods will be briefly mentioned here. Abhaya-śānti is prescribed when a king desires to be a conqueror or when he is attacked by enemies or when he fears that witchcraft has been practised against him or when he desires to uproot his enemies or when a great danger threatenṣ The Saumya śānti is prescribed when a man is attacked by Tuberculosis or is weak owing to wounds or when a man desires to perform a sacrifice. When there is an earthquake or when there is a famine of food or there is excessive rain or drought or there is danger of locusts or when thieves are operating the Vaisnvari śānti is prescribed; Raudri śānti is employed against an epidemic among cattle or human beings or when ghosts appear or when a coronation is to take place or when there is fear of an invasion or there is treachery in one's kingdom, or when enemies are to be killed; Brāhmi śānti is performed when it is feared that Veda study would perish or when atheism prevails or where honour is paid to persons unworthy of it; if strong winds blow for more than three days and disease spreads due to vāta, then Vāyavī śānti should be performed; Vāruṇī when there is fear of drought or there is abnormal rain (of blood &c.); Bhārgavī when there is danger of false accusation; Prajāpatyā when abnormal births take place; Tvāṣṭrī when there are abnormal conditions of implements; Kaumārī when śānti is to be performed for children; Āgneyī when fire shows portentous appearances; Gāndharvī when a person is disobeyed or his wife and servants perish, or he desires to perform śānti for horses; Āṅgirasī when elephants are affected; Nairṛtī when danger arises from goblins; Yāmyā when there is fear of an accident leading to death or a bad dream; Kauberī when wealth is lost; Pārthivī when trees are affected by abnormal conditions; Aindrī when portents happen on Jyeṣṭhā nakṣatra or on Anurādhā.

The Agnipurāṇa (263. 7–8) refers to these 18 śāntis and says that the best śāntis are Amṛtā, Abhayā and Saumyā. Varāhamihira mentions numerous śāntis on the happenings of several abnormal incidentṣ For reasons of space nothing can be said here about theṃ But one śānti deserves to be set out.⁶⁸ If a man perceives Yakṣas, the astrologer should declare that an epidemic is very near; for counteracting them Garga performed a propitiatory rite, viz. Mahāśāntis, offerings, plentiful food, worship of Indra and Indrāṇī.' The Bṛhatsaṁhitā sets out (45. 82–95) certain happenings as not portentous when they happen in certain seasons and quotes several verses of Ṛṣiputra which also occur in Matsya 229. 14–25 with some variations; e. g. in Caitra and Vaiśākha the following are auspicious (and not portents requiring śānti) lightning, meteors, earthquake, blazing twilight, noisy storms, halo, dust in sky, smoke in forests, red sunrise and sunset.