Chapter IX. Shrāddha

Volume IV pp. 334–515

Chapter IX. Shrāddha

This subject is of great practical importance from several points of view.

The Brahmapurāṇa defines śrāddha as follows: ‘whatever is given with faith to brāhmaṇas intending it to be for the (benefit of) pitṛs at a proper time, in a proper place, to deserving persons and in accordance with the prescribed procedure is called śrāddha’¹. The Mit on Yaj I 217 defines śrāddha as ‘abandonment with faith of an article of food or some substitute thereof, intending it for (the benefit of) the departed’. The Kalpataru on śrāddha defined it as ‘the giving up of sacrificial material intending it for pitṛs and its acceptance by brāhmaṇas’. The Śrāddhaviveka of Rudradhara and the Śrāddhaprakāśa define śrāddha in the same way as the Mit. but in a more involved manner. Yaj. I. 268 (= Agnipurāṇa 163. 40-41) states that the pitṛs viz. Vasus, Rudras and Ādityas that are the deities of śrāddha, being gratified by śrāddha, give gratification to the ancestors of human beingṣ This verse and Manu III. 284 make it clear that the three ancestors of a man, viz. the father, paternal grand-father and the paternal great- grand-father are respectively to be identified with the three orders of superintending _pitṛ_ deities, viz. Vasus, Rudras and Adityas, when performing _śrāddha_. According to some,² _śrāddha_ denotes three things, viz. _homa_, the offering of _piṇḍa_ (ball of cooked food) and gratification of _brāhmaṇas_ invited to a dinner; the application of this word to any one of these three can only be in a secondary sense.

A firm believer in the doctrine of _kai ma_, _punarjanma_ (re- incarnation) and _karma-vipāka_ (explained above) may find it difficult to reconcile that doctrine with the belief that by offer- ing balls of rice to his three deceased paternal ancestors a man brings gratification to the souls of the latter. According to the doctrine of _punarjanma_ (as very clearly and succinctly put in Br. Up IV. 4,4 and Bhagavad-gītā 2 22)³ the spirit leaving one body enters into another and a new one. But the doctrine of offering balls of rice to three ancestors requires that the spirits of the three ancestors even after the lapse of 50 or 100 years are still capable of enjoying in an ethereal body the flavour or essence of the rice balls wafted by the winḍ Further, Yāj. I 269 (which is the same as Mārk. 29. 38, Matsya-purāṇa 19. 11-12, Agnipurāṇa 163. 41-42) provides that the grand- fathers (i. e. _pitṛs_) being themselves gratified (by the offerings of food in _śrāddha_) bestow on men (their descendants) long life, progeny, wealth, learning, heaven, _mokṣa_ (final beatitude), all happiness and kingdoṃ In the Matsya-purāṇa (chap. 19, verse 2) a question is asked by the sages how food which a brāhmaṇa (invited at a _śrāddha_) eats or which is offered into fire is enjoyed by departed spirits that might have assumed (after death) good or evil forms of bodieṣ The answer given (verses 3-9) is that fathers, grand-fathers and great-grand- fathers are identified with Vasus, Rudras and Adityas respectively according to Vedic passages, that the name and _gotra_ (mentioned at the time of _śrāddha_), the mantras uttered and faith carry to the _pitṛs_ the offerings made, that if one's father has become a god (by his good deeds) the food offered in śrāddha becomes nectar and follows him in his state of godhood, if he has become a dāitya (an asura) then (the food) reaches him in the form of various enjoyments, if he has become a beast then it becomes grass for him and if he has become a snake the śrāddha food waits on him as wind (serpents are supposed to subsist on wind) and so oṇ Verses 5-9 of the Matsya, chap. 19 are quoted as from Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa by the Śrāddhakalpalatā p. 5. Viśvarūpa ⁴ on Yāj. I, 265 (p. 171 of Tri. eḍ) also raises the same objection and gives several replieṣ One is that this is a matter entirely based on śāstra and so when pitṛs are gratified and the performer gets desired objects no objection should be raiseḍ Another reply is that the gods Vasus and others that have access everywhere have the power to gratify pitṛs wherever they may be situateḍ He does not call the questioners (nāstika) as some other and later writers do.

The Śrāddhakalpalatā of Nandapaṇḍita ⁵ (about 1600 A. D.) enters upon an elaborate reply to these persons (whom he dubs atheists) that aver that the performance of śrāddhas for departed fathers and the rest, who according to the particular actions of each go to heaven or hell or to other forms of existence serves no purpose. He asks: why is śrāddha useless? Is it because there is no prescriptive text laying down an obligatioṇ to perform it or is it because śrāddha produces no consequences or is it that it is not proved that pitṛs and the rest are gratified by śrāddha? To the first he replies that there are such passages as ‘therefore a wise man must perform śrāddha with all his efforts’ that lay down the obligation; nor is the 2nd objection proper, since Yaj. I. 269 does declare the rewards (of śrāddha) viz. long life &c. Nor is the third alternative acceptable. In the śrāddha rites it is not that the mere ancestors named Devadatta and the like are the recipients and that they are denoted by the words pitṛ, pitāmaha and prapitāmaha, but that those words denote them as accompanied by the superintending deities viz. Vasus, Rudras and Ādityaṣ Just as by the words Devadatta and the like what is denoted is not merely the bodies (so named) nor merely the souls, but what is denoted by the words is individual souls as particularised by the bodies; in the same way the words pitṛ and the like denote Devadatta and others together with the superintending deities (viz. Vasus, Rudras and Ādityas). Therefore, the superintending deities viz. the Vasus and the rest, being gratified by the food and drink offered by the sons and the rest, gratify those also viz. Devadatta and the rest and endow the performers (of śrāddha) with such rewards as male progeny and the rest. Just as a woman expecting to be a mother becomes gratified by partaking of the food and drink for which she has a longing in pregnancy and which is given to her by another person for the sustenance of the child in the womb, she satiates also the child in her womb and endows those that offer her the food and drink for which she has longings by bestowing on them some reward in returṇ Thus the pitṛs denoted by the words father, grand-father and great-grand-father are the deities Vasus, Rudras and Ādityas, and not merely (human beings called) Devadatta and the rest. Hence these deities of śrāddha become the recipients (of gifts) in the śrāddha rite, are gratified by the śrāddha and gratify in their turn the ancestors of human beingṣ The Śrāddha-kalpatā then quotes 18 verses ⁶ from the Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa many of which are found in chap. 28 (verses 3 ff) of the printed text. It is said⁷ that just as a calf finds its own mother from among many cows that are scattered about, so the mantras repented in śrāddha carry the food to the pitrṣ

The explanation offered by the Śrāddha-kalpalatā relying on passages of the Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa is not satisfactory and is rather far-fetcheḍ The Mārkaṇḍeya and the Matsya appear to agree with the doctrine of Vedānta that immediately on leaving one body the soul has recourse to another body, either as a god or a man or a beast or a snake &c. The hypothesis propounded is that the food and drink offered in śrāddhas becomes transformed into various substances for the use of the ancestors (Matsya 141. 74-75). But the great difficulty in accepting this explanation is that the ancestors might die at different places, while śrāddha may very often be performed at one place far away from those placeṣ It is difficult to believe that the grass growing in one place where the ancestor has been transformed into a beast as a result of his evil actions is the same that might have been produced from the substances offered in śrāddha at a place hundreds of miles away. Further, if one or all the three ancestors have been transformed into beasts or the like how can they recognize their offspring and bestow on them long life, wealth &c? If the Vasus, Rudras and Ādityas bestow these, it is better to say so directly and affirm that pitrs cannot bestow any thing on their progeny. It appears very probable that the worship of ancestors by means of śrāddhas was a very ancient institution and that the doctrines of punarjanma and karmavipāka were comparatively later ones and that Hinduism being all-embracing retained the institution of śrāddhas while adopting also the doctrine of metempsychosiṣ The institution of śrāddha is from one point of view an excellent one. It provides an occasion for remembrance of one's ancestors and relatives that were dear and near when living. The Āryasamāja objects to the institution of śrāddha and interprets pitṛs in the Ṛgveda as meaning living men in the Vānaprastha stage. It may be noted that the texts support both viewṣ The Śat. Br. expressly says that food is offered to the father of the sacrificer in the words 'this is for thee.' Viṣṇu Dh. S, 75. 4 'He whose father is dead may put down a piṇḍa for his father &c.' On the other hand Manu III. 284 states that fathers are spoken of as Vasus, grandfathers as Rudras &c and Yaj. I, 269 provides that Vasus, Rudras and Ādityas are the pitṛs and the devatās of śrāddha. These latter are to be explained as containing an injunction to contemplate upon the pitṛs as Vasus, Rudras &c. As stated below (p. 347) with regard to the Ṛgvedic passages, it was on account of the supposed power of pitṛs to benefit or harm the living that the cult of the dead became a prominent feature in primitive societieṣ Offerings and ceremonies which may have in most ancient times been prompted in part at least by the desire to placate the ancestors are continued as tokens of pure affection and remembrance. Various beliefs about pitṛs are mentioned ⁸ in post-Vedic Literature. The Bauḍ Dh. S. II. 8.14 summarizes a brāhmaṇa text stating that pitṛs move about in the form of birdṣ The Auśanasasmṛti and Devala quoted by the Kalpataru say the same thing. In the Vāyu-purāṇa ⁹ it is stated that at the time of śrāddha the ancestors enter the brāhmaṇas (invited) after assuming an aerial form and that when the best of brāhmaṇas are honoured with clothes, foods, gifts, eatables, liquids, cows, horses and villages, pitṛs become pleaseḍ Manu III. 189 and the Auśanasa-smṛti also support this notion that pitṛs enter the invited brāhmaṇaṣ The Matsyapurāṇa (18. 5-7) enjoins: pindas should be offered to the departed for twelve days after death, since they serve him as food on his journey and give him great satisfactioṇ Therefore, the soul leaving the dead body is not taken to the abode of the departed for twelve days (after death), the departed spirit hovers near his house, his sons, his wife for twelve dayṣ Therefore for ten days after death milk (and water) should be placed (hung up) in space for ten nights for reducing all torments (or troubles of the departed) and for the removal of the fatigue of the journey (that the departed spirit has to make). The Viṣṇudharmasūtra ¹⁰ (20. 34-36) provides "the departed spirit enjoys in the world of pitṛs the food offered in śrāddha with the utterance of the word 'svadhā'; whether the departed is in the state of a god or in the place of torments (Hell) or in the form of a lower animal or a human being, the śrāddha food offered by his relatives reaches him; when śrāddha is performed, the performer and the departed soul both certainly secure vigour (or prosperity)."

The Brahmapurāṇa ¹¹ states that śrāddha is to be treated of under five heads, viz. how, where, when, by whom and with what materialṣ But before proceeding to deal with these five heads, it is necessary to dilate upon the underlying ideas and significance of the word 'pitaraḥ' from the most ancient times of which we have literary recordṣ

The word 'pitṛ' means 'father', but the word 'pitaraḥ' is used in two senses, viz. (1) a man's three immediate deceased ancestors, (2) the early or ancient ancestors of the human race that were supposed to inhabit a separate world (loka) by them- selveṣ¹² For this second meaning, vide Rg. X. 14. 2 and 7, X.15.2 (translated above pp. 191–92, 194) and Rg. IX.97.39.¹² ‘That Soma which becomes stronger and stronger and makes others strong, that is strained through a strainer, that flows in a stream, protected us by means of the luminary (the Sun)—that Soma with whose help our ancestors knowing the place (where the cows were kept concealed) and the higher regions, harassed the mountain for (the sake of recovering) the cowṣ’ In Rg. X. 15 1 the pitṛs are said to be of three grades, lower, middling or higher. They are also said to be earlier and later ones (Rg. X. 15 2). They are all known to Agni, though all pitṛs are not known to their descendants (Rg. X. 15 13). The pitṛs are divided into several groups such as Aṅgirasas, Vairūpas, Atharvans, Bhrgus, Navagvas and Daśagvas (Rg. X. 14. 5–6), the Aṅgirasas being particularly associated with Yama who is invoked to come to the sacrifice along with the Aṅgirasas (Rg. X. 14. 3–5). In Rg. I.¹³ 62. 2 it is said: ‘through whose (Indra’s) help our ancient ancestors (pitaraḥ), the Aṅgirasas, who sang his praises and who knew the place, found out the cowṣ’ The pitṛs called Aṅgirasas were, it appears, again subdivided into two classes viz. Navagva and Daśagva¹⁴ both of which words occur in Rg. I. 62 4, V. 39. 12 and X. 62. 6. In several passages the ancient fathers are identified with the seven sages¹⁵ as in Rg. IV. 42.8 and VI. 22.2 and sometimes the Navagvas and Daśagvas also are said to be the seven sages (Rg I 62 4). Aṅgirasas are said to be the sons of Agni (Rg. X. 62. 5) and also of Heaven (Rg. IV. 2. 15). The pitṛs are often said to regale themselves in the company of gods, particularly of Yama (Rg VII. 76. 4, X. 14 10, X. 15, 8–10) ¹⁶. The pitṛs are said to be fond of Soma drink (Rg IX. 97 39), they lie down on kuśa grass (Rg X. 15.5), they come with Agni and Indra to partake of the offerings (Rg X. 15. 10 and X. 16. 12) and Agni is also said to carry the offerings to the pitṛs (Rg X. 15. 12). Fire is supposed to take the spirit of a cremated person to the pitṛs (Rg. X 16. 1-2, 5=A. V. 18. 2. 10, Rg X. 17. 3). In later works also (e. g. in Mārk. chap. 45), Brahmā is supposed to have created in the beginning four classes viz. gods, asuras, pitṛs and human beings Vide also Brahmāṇḍapurāṇa, Prakriyā, chap. 8, and upodghāta chap. 9. 35 (ityete pitaro devā devāśca pitaraḥ punaḥ anyonyapitāro hyete).

It was supposed that the departed spirit, after the cremation of the body, was endowed with an ethereal body and became associated with Yama, the gatherer of departed men (Rg. X. 14.1 and 8, X. 15.14, X. 16 5), and with pitṛṣ The departed spirit went to the world of the pitṛs and Agni was implored to take the spirit to the world of the departed whose deeds were good and to the stride of Viṣṇu (Rg. X. 14. 9, X. 15, 3, X. 16. 4).

Although Yama is said to dwell in heaven (divi) in Rg. X. 64. 3, he is really a god of the middle region, as the Nirukta stateṣ ¹⁷ The Atharvaveda states ¹⁸ ‘let us worship with obeisance the fathers and grandfathers of our father, that enter the wide middle regions, that dwell on the earth and in heaveṇ’ In Rg. I. 35. 6 ¹⁹ it is said ‘there are three worlds; two of them (Heaven and earth) are in the lap of Savitṛ; one (i. e. the middle region) is in the domain of Yama where departed spirits congregate. ‘The great Luminary (the Sun) has risen, a gift of the pitṛs’ (Rg X. 107. 1). In the Tai Br. I. 3. 10. 5 ²⁰ IV]

it is said that the pitṛs dwell in the third world from thiṣ This means that after bhūloka and antarikṣa comes the pitṛloka. In the Br. Up. I. 5.16 three worlds of men, pitṛs and gods are separately mentioneḍ In Rg. X. 135. 1-7, Yama is spoken of in somewhat different language. He is in this hymn men- tioned as a god by himself and not as the first mortal who made a path (Rg. X. 14. 2) or as the gatherer of men (X. 14. 1) or as being in company of the pitṛs In a few other places Yama is no doubt called rājan and praised in the same breath with Varuṇa (Rg. X. 14. 7). But such a position is very rarely mentioneḍ For the further development of Yama and his assistants as the punishers of men for evil deeds, vide pp. 159-160 above and notes 381-386.

There is another division of pitṛs viz. pitaraḥ somavantaḥ,²¹ pitaraḥ barhiṣadaḥ, pitaraḥ agniṣvāttāḥ. The latter two are named in Rg X. 15 4 and 11 (which occur also in Tai. S. II. 6. 12. 2). The Śat. Br. defines these as followṣ—“those that performed a soma sacrifice are pitaraḥ somavantaḥ; those that offered cooked oblations (like caru and puroḍāśa) and secured a world are pitaraḥ barhiṣadaḥ; those that did none of these (two actions) and whom fire consumes when burning them are ‘pitaraḥ agniṣvāttāḥ;’ these are the only ones that are pitaraḥ.” The Tai. ²² Br. has a somewhat similar passage and the Kāṭhaka Saṃhitā IX. 6. 17 also refers to these three kinds of pitṛṣ Later writers introduced certain changes in the mean- ings of the words for the different classes of pitṛs and also in- creased the number of the classes of pitṛṣ For example, the Nandipurāṇa q. by Hemādri states: the pitṛs of brāhmaṇas are called ‘agniṣvātta’, those of kṣatriyas ‘barhiṣadah’, those of vaiśyas ‘kāvyas’, those of śūdras ‘sukālin’ and those of mle- cchas and untouchables are called ‘vyāma.²³ Even Manu (III, 193–198) mentions several classes of pitṛs, connects pitṛs called Somapās, Havirbhujah Ājyapās and Sukālins with the four varṇas and in III. 199 states that the pitṛs of brāhmaṇas are designated as Anagnidagdha, Agnidagdha, Kāvyā, Barhiṣad, Agniṣvātta and Saumya. Those verses of Manu appear to summarize different traditions about the several classes of pitṛṣ Vide Matsyapurāṇa 141. 4 for the same last four names and 141. 15–18 for their definitionṣ In Śātātapa-smṛti (VI 5–6) twelve groups or divisions of pitṛs are mentioned viz. piṇḍabhājah (three), lepakabhājah (three), Nāndīmukhās (three) and Aśrumukhās (three). This is a classification of pitṛs from two different standpointṣ In Vāyu 72.1 and 73.60, Brahmāṇḍa (Upodghāta 9 53), Padma V. 9 2–3, Viṣṇudharma-ttara I. 138 2–3 and other Purāṇas the classes of pitṛs are said to be seven, three of which are formless (amūrtimat) and four have forms (mūrtimat) and they and their offspring are des-cribed in detail. All this is passed over here. The Skanda-purāṇa (VI. 216. 9–10) speaks of nine groups of pitṛs, being Agni-ṣvāttāḥ, Barhiṣadaḥ, Ājyapāḥ, Somapāḥ, Rasmipāḥ, Upahūtāḥ, those called ‘āyantunaḥ’, Śrāddhabhujaḥ, Nāndīmukhāḥ. In this list old and new elements are mixed up. The Indian mind often revels in divisions, sub-divisions and classifications with-out much basis therefor and this is probably an illustration of that tendency. Manu (III 201) states that from the sages the pitṛs sprang, from the pitṛs sprang gods and human beings and from the gods arose the whole world whether moving or immovable. It is remarkable that here the gods are spoken of as springing from the pitṛṣ This is really a mere eulogy of pitṛs (i. e. it is an arthavāda).

The pitṛs were in a class apart from the godṣ On the meaning of the word ‘pañcajanāḥ’ occurring in Rg. X. ²⁴ 53.4 (pañcajanā mama hotram juṣadhyam) and other passages, the Aīt. Br. (13.7 or 3.31) explains that they are the five classes, viz. Gandharvas with Apsarases, pitṛs, devas, sarpas and rākṣasaṣ The Nirukta III. 8 partly follows this explanation and also gives another. In the Atharvaveda X. 6. 32 the gods, pitṛs and men are mentioned in that order. The ancient Vedic texts and practice make a sharp distinction between the Gods and the Pitṛṣ The Tai. S. VI. 1. 1. 1 states: ‘the gods and men divided the quarters, the gods took the east, pitṛs the south, men the west and Rudras the north.’ The general rule is that sacrifices for gods are begun in the forenoon, while the pitṛ-yajña is performed in the afternoon (Śān Br.)²⁵ The Śat Br. II. 4. 2.2 narrates that the pitṛs wearing the sacred thread over the right shoulder (and under the left arm) and bending their left knee approached Prajāpati, when Prajāpati said to them ‘you will have food at (the end of) each month (on the Amāvāsyā ), your svadhā (cordial) will be swiftness of thought and the moon will be your light,’ while to the gods he had said that sacrifice will be their food and the sun their light. The Tai. Br. ²⁶ I. 3. 10. 4 appears to make a distinction between pitṛs who are of the nature and position of gods and pitṛs that are more or less like human beingṣ

The Kauśika-sūtra (1. 9–23) neatly collects in one place the difference in the procedure of the rites meant for gods and for pitṛṣ The performer of rites for gods wears the sacred thread on the left shoulder and under the right armpit, while in the case of the rites for pitṛs it is worn on the right shoulder and under the left arm; the rite for gods is either begun facing the east or north, while that for the pitṛs is begun facing the south; the rite for gods is finished in the north-east (or north or east), while that for the pitṛs is completed in the south-west; an action is done only once for pitṛs, while for gods at least thrice or as many times as the texts direct; in going round (perambulating) the right side is turned towards gods and the left one in the case of pitṛs; offerings are made to gods with the words ‘svāhā’ and ‘vasaṭ’, while they are made to pitṛs with ‘svadhā’ and 'namaskāra'; the darbhas employed in rites for Fathers are those that are taken out from the earth with their roots, while for gods darbhas used are cut a little above the rootṣ The Bauḍ Śr. II. 2. also mentions some of these in one place. The Ṛgveda itself (in X. 14. 3 'svāhānye svadhānye madanti') marks this distinction in the words employed at the offerings to Gods and Pitṛṣ The Śat Br. (II, 1, 3, 4 and II. 1. 4. 9) speaks of the gods as immortal and of the Fathers as mortal.

Though the gods and pitṛs are placed in separate classes, still the pitṛs partake of some characteristics of the divine. As Rg X. 15. 8 shows, the pitṛs drank Soma. In Rg. X. 68. 11 it is said that the pitṛs adorned the sky with nakṣatras (nakṣatrebhiḥ pitaro dyām-apimsaṁ) and placed darkness in the night and light in the day. The pitṛs are said to have found out the light that was secreted and to have produced the Dawn (Rg. VII. 76. 4). Here the pitṛs are credited with powers possessed by the highest godṣ The pitṛs are invoked with affection and regard for conferring various boons and their favour is sought in various wayṣ In Rg. X. 14. 6 the good will (sumati) and favour (saumanasa) of the pitṛs are sought. In Rg X. 15. 1 and 5 the protection of pitṛs is sought. They are requested to grant happiness unmixed with trouble (Rg. X. 15. 4), to bestow wealth on the sacrificer (Rg X. 15. 7 and 11) and on his soṇ Rg X. 15. 11 and A. V. 18. 3. 14 ²⁷ seek the bestowal of wealth and heroic sonṣ A. V. 14. 2. 73 says 'May the one who throng round the bride to see her grant her happiness endowed with progeny.' ²⁸ In the Vāj. S. II. 33 occurs ²⁹ the well-known mantra 'Oh pitṛs' deposit (in this wife) an ³⁰ embryo, a child that (will wear later) a garland of lotuses so that he may become a grown-up male' repeated when the wife of the performer of the śrāddha eats the middle one out of the three piṇḍaṣ It should not be, however, supposed that the element of fear of the pitṛs is altogether wanting.³¹ For example, Rg. X. 15. 6 prays ‘whatever fault we may commit in reference to you through our being (erring) men do not injure us for that.’ In Rg. III. 55. 2 we read ‘May the gods and the ancient pitṛs who know the place (of the cows or the path ) not harm us here.’ In Rg. X. 66. 14 it is said ‘the Vasisthas praising the gods fashioned speech (hymns) like pitṛs and pitṛs and ṛsis are separate groups and Vasisthas are compared to both.³²

In many passages of the Vedic Literature the word pitṛaḥ is applied to the three immediate deceased male ancestors of a maṇ ‘Therefore up to three generations they specify (the ancestors) by name; for so many are the ones to whom sacrifice is offered’ (vide ṇ 772 above). The Śat. Br, II 4, 2, 19 ³³ mentions the presentation formulas of the cakes to the father, grand-father and great-grand-father and then states that the performer mutters the words “here, O fathers! regale yourselves, like bulls come here each to his own share” (Vāj. S II, 31 first half). Some (such as Tai. S. I. 8. 5. 1) repeated the formula “this here (ball of rice) is for thee and (for those) that come after thee.” But the Śat. Br. emphatically says that he should not offer with this formula, but rather with the formula ‘this here is for thee.’ In Śat. Br. XII. 8. 1, 7 the three immediate paternal ancestors are said to be svadhā-loving. Relying on these Vedic passages and on the fact that Manu (III. 221) and Viṣṇudharma-sūtra (21. 3, 75. 4) prescribe the invocation of pitṛs after men-tioning their gotra and names that the Śrāddhaprakāśa (p 13) concludes that it is really the father and the other ancestors that are the deities of śrāddha and not Vasu, Rudra and Āditya, since these latter have no gotra and that the description of the father and others as Vasu, Rudra and Āditya is meant only for contemplation (on them as identical with Vasus &c.). On a passage of the Brahmapurāṇa³⁴ prescribing that the perfor-mer should say to the invited brāhmaṇas that he would call the pitṛs to the rites and that when the brāhmaṇas give per-mission to call them he should do so, the Śr. P. (p. 204) remarks that the pitṛs here meant are the divine ones viz. Vasus, Rudras and Ādityas and also the human ones viz. the performer’s father and the rest. The Vāyupurāṇa (56. 65–66) Brahmāṇḍa and Anu. distinguish between pitṛs who are above and pitṛs who are laukika, viz father, grand-father and great-grand-father. Vide also Vāyu 70. 34 for pitṛs that are like godṣ

In the post-Vedic Literature, particularly in the Purāṇas, a great deal is said about the origin and classes of pitṛṣ For example, the Vāyupurāṇa 56. 18 speaks of three classes of pitṛs viz ‘kāvyāh, barhiṣadah and agniṣvāttāḥ’, while the same Purāṇa, chap. 73, Varāha 13. 16 ff, Padma (Sṛṣṭi 9. 2–4) and Brahmāṇḍa III. 10 1 speak of the origin of pitṛs of seven classes that dwell in heaven, four of which have a form (mūrtimat) and three of which are without form (amūrta). The Śātātapa-smṛti (6. 5–6) speaks of 12 pitṛs viz. piṇḍabhajah, lepabhajah, nāndimukhāh and aśrumukhāh. All such descrip-tions have to be passed over from considerations of space. IV] From the sūtra period (about 600 B. C) to the most modern among medieval dharmaśāstra works the authors wax eloquent over the praises or the importance or benefits of the institution of śrāddhaṣ One of the earliest works among these, viz. the Āp. Dh. S gives the following interesting information :³⁵ “Formerly men and gods lived together in this worlḍ The gods went to heaven owing to sacrifices (i. e. as a reward of sacrifices that they performed), but men remained behinḍ Those among men who perform sacrifices in the same way as the gods did, dwell in the other world (i. e. heaven) with the gods and Brahmaṇ Then (seeing that men lagged behind) Manu promulgated the rite which is designated by the word ‘śrāddha’ and which tends to the salvation (or happiness) of mankinḍ In this rite the Manes (pitaraḥ) are the deities but the brāhmaṇas (that are fed) are in the place of the āhavanīya fire (in which in sacrifices to gods oblations are offered)”. On account of this last sūtra Haradatta (coṃ of Āp. Dh. S.) and others hold that feeding the brāhmaṇas is the princi-pal act at a śrāddha. The Brahmāṇḍapurāṇa (Upodghātapāda 9, 15. and 10. 99) speaks of Manu as the promulgator of śrāddha rites and Viṣṇupurāṇa III. 1 30, Vāyu 44. 38 and Bhāgavata III. 1. 22 designate Manu as Śrāddha-deva. Similarly, in the Śāntiparva 345.³⁶ 14–21 and the Viṣṇu-dharmottara I.139. 14–16 it is stated that the institution of śrāddha was established in the Boar incarnation by Viṣṇu and that Viṣṇu should be regarded as dwelling in the three piṇḍas offered to the father, grand-father and great-grandfather. From this and from the passage of the Āp. Dh. S cited above we may infer that it was believed even several centuries before Christ that the institution of śrāddhas had a hoary antiquity behind it and that it was as old as Manu, the father of mankind according to the Ṛgveda (VIII. 63, 1, VIII 30, 3.). It is, however, very remarkable that the word ‘śrāddha’ itself does not occur in any undoubtedly authentic and ancient Vedic passage, though the rite called Piṇḍapitṛ-yajña ³⁷ (performed on the amāvāsyā of each month by an Ahitāgni), the Mahāpitryajña (performed in the Caturmāsya called Sākamedha) and the rites called Astakās were known to the early Vedic literature. The word śrāddha occurs in the Kathopanisad (I. 3. 17) ‘whoever proclaims this highly esoteric doctrine in an assembly of brāhmaṇas or at the time of śrāddha tends to secure immortality.’³⁸ The other early occurrences of the word śrāddha known to me are confined to the sūtra literature. The most reasonable and probable inference to be drawn from these facts is this that only a few rites (mentioned just above) were known as related to the pitṛs and that there-fore no need arose for a generic term in very ancient times to comprehend several rites for the pitṛs. But when the number of rites in honour of pitṛs increased, the generic term ‘śrāddha’ was hit upoṇ

A few samples of the panegyrics on śrāddha may be set out here. The Bauḍ³⁹ Dh S. states that rites for the Fathers confer long life, heaven, fame and prosperity. The Harivamśa⁴⁰ says ‘the world derives support from śrāddha and Yoga (i. e. Mokṣa) springs from it.’ Sumantu⁴¹ quoted in the Smṛticandrikā (śrāddha p. 333) states ‘nothing else is declared to be more beneficial than śrāddha.’ The Viṣṇupurāṇa (III. 14. 1-4) avers that if a man performs śrāddha with faith he thereby propitiates Brahmā, Indra, Rudra and the other gods, sages, birds, men, beasts, creeping animals, hosts of pitṛs and whatever else is styled a being and the whole worlḍ Yāj. I. 270⁴² promising long life and several other benefits arising from gratifying pitṛs has already been quoted above (p. 337). Yama has a similar verse. It is said in a passage of the Viṣṇudharmottara⁴³ quoted by the Śrāddhasāra (p, 6) and Śrāddhaprakāśa (pp 11–12) that the pinda offered to the great-grandfather is declared to be god Vāsudeva himself, the one to the grandfather is designated Saṅkarṣaṇa, that to the father is known as Pradyumna and the offered of the pindas is him- self in the position of Aniruddha. In Śāntiparva 345. 21 it is stated that Viṣṇu should be looked upon as staying in the Amāvāsyā the pitṛs assuming an aerial form come to the door of their former haunt and mark whether śrāddha is being per- formed by men of their family. This they do till sunset. When the sun sets, being oppressed by hunger and thirst, they become full of despair and feel sorrow, breathe heavily for a long time and go away condemning their descendantṣ The pitṛa of him who does not offer śrāddha on amāvāsyā, even with water or vegetables, go away after cursing him'.

It is necessary to say a few words about the derivation of the word ‘śrāddha’. That the word is derived from ‘śrāddha’ is quite clear. In the definition quoted above from the Brahma- purāṇa and the definition ⁴⁴ given by Marīci and Bṛhaspati the connection of śrāddha with śrāddha is emphasizeḍ In śrāddha one entertains the firm faith or conviction that what is given up to the brāhmaṇas for the benefit of the departed man or the Fathers will reach him or them in some way. The Skandapurāṇa VI, 218.3 says that śrāddha is so called because śrāddha is the root (or main spring) of that rite. This means that there is not only the conviction stated above but that there is a firm belief that a person is under an obligation to offer it. Śrāddha is deified and addressed as a deity in Rg. ⁴⁵ X. 151. 1-5, the first verse of which is explained in the Nirukta (IX. 31). The word also occurs in Rg. II. 26. 3, VII. 32. 14, VIII. 1. 31, IX. 113. 4. In some verses the two components of the word ‘śrāddha’ (viz. ‘śrat’ and ‘dhā’) are separated without any change in the meaning For example, in Rg. II. 12. 5 (= A. V. 20. 34. 5) it is said ‘Have faith in him; O people! he is Indra’. In Rg. X. 147. 1, addressed to Indra, we have ‘I have faith in that high wrath of yours &c.’ (śratte dadhāmi prathamāya manyave). In the Tai S VII 4. 1. 1 it is ⁴⁶ said 'Bṛhaspati desired 'may the gods put faith in me, may I reach the position of being their priest'". Vide also Ṛg. I. 103. 5. Śrat and śrāddha are both mentioned in the Nighaṇṭu (III. 10) as meaning 'satya'. In the Vāj. S. 19. 77 we are told that Prajāpati put śrāddha in truth and aśraddhā in falsehood, while in Vāj. S. 19.30, it is said that truth is obtained by śrāddha.

In the post-vedic Literature, Pāṇini explains the forms 'śraddhin' and 'śrāddhika' in V. 2. 85, in the sense of 'one who has eaten a śrāddha dinner'. The word 'śrāddha' may be derived from śrāddha according to Pāṇ. V. 1. 109 ⁴⁷. śrāddha is variously defined In the bhāṣya on Yogasūtra I. 20, 'śrāddha' is defined as the composure of the mind ⁴⁸ (or men- tal approval). Devala defines śrāddha: 'confidence (in the efficacy) of religious acts is called śrāddha, one who has no faith has no reason (or motive) for engaging in religious acts' ⁴⁹. The Śrāddhasūtra ⁵⁰ of Kātyāyana prescribes 'one endowed with śrāddha should offer śrāddha even with vege- tables (if nothing else is available)'. Vide Manu III. 275 which emphasizes śrāddha for the gratification of pitṛṣ The Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa (29. 27) emphasizes ⁵¹ the relation of śrāddha to śrāddha and states that what is offered at śrāddhas becomes transformed into that kind of food for the use of the pitṛs who require food in the new bodies they might have assu- med according to the doctrine of karma and punarjanma and it also remarks that śrāddha offered with wealth acquired in an improper or unjust way is a means of gratification to the pitṛs that are born as cāṇḍālas, pukkasas and similar very low grades of people. It has already been stated above (pp. 349-350) that in very ancient times there were only three rites for departed ancestors, viz. Piṇḍa-pitṛ-yajña (offered by those who had consecrated the śrauta fires) or monthly śrāddha in the case of those who had not done so (vide e. g. Āśv. Gr. II. 5. 10, Hir. Gr. II. 10. 1, Āp. Gr. VIII. 21. 1. Viṣṇupurāṇa III. 14. 3 &c.), the Mahāpitṛ-yajña and the Aṣṭakā śrāddhaṣ The first two have been already described in vol. II (as said above), but the Aṣṭakā śrāddhas have not been described at all so far. Therefore some remarks will be offered here about theṃ They are of special importance, but the authorities present great variations on almost all points such as the number of days and the months in which they were to be performed, the deities to be worshipped, the offerings to be made and the procedure to be followeḍ

Gaut. (VIII. 19) mentions 'Aṣṭakā' rite as the first among the seven kinds of pākayajñas and as one of the forty saṁskāraṣ Aṣṭakā appears to have meant the 8th tithi in any month after the Full Moon day (vide Śat. Br. VI. 4. 2. 10). The Śat. Br. states ⁵² 'On the 8th day (after full moon) he (the performer of agnicayana) collects the materials for the fire pan, for sacred to Prajāpati is the 8th day (after full moon) and sacred to Prajāpati is this rite viz. the firepaṇ' Śabara in his Bhāṣya on Jai.⁵³ I. 3. 2 cites a verse occurring in the A. V. III. 10. 2 and in the Āp. M. P. II. 20. 27 as a mantra indicative of Aṣṭakā. The mantra is "May that (Aṣṭakā) night be very suspicious for us, whom people welcome like a cow coming towards a person and which is the wife of the Year.' In the A. V. III. 10. 8 the Ekāṣṭakā is said to have the year (Saṁvatsara) as husbanḍ The Tai. S. VII. 4. 8. 1. provides ⁵⁴ 'Men about to take dīkṣā (consecration) for a Saṁvatsarasattra should undergo dīkṣā on the Ekāṣṭakā; what is called Ekāṣṭakā is the wife of the year.' Jaimini (VI. 5. 32-37) explains that Ekāṣṭakā is the 8th tithi after the Full Moon of Māgha. The Āp Gr. (quoted by Haradatta on Gaut. 8 19) says ⁵⁵ the same, but adds that on it (the 8th tithi) the moon is 'in Jyesthā constellatioṇ This means that if the 8th tithi is spread over two days, then that day on which the moon is in Jyestha would be called Ekāṣṭakā ⁵⁶ The Hir. Gr. (II 15.9) also says that Ekāṣṭakā is called the wife of the year ⁵⁷

According to the Aśv. Gr. II. 4. 1 the Aṣṭakā days (and rites) were four, viz the 8th tithis of the dark halves of the four months of the two seasons of hemanta and śiśira (i. e of Mārgaśirṣa, Pausa, Māgha and Phālguṇa). Most of the Gṛhya-sūtras viz Mānava Gr. II, 8, Sāṇ Gr III. 12 1, Khādira Gr. III. 3 27, Kathaka Gr. 61.1, Kauśītaki Gr. III. 15. III. 3 say that there are only three Aṣṭakā rites viz. on the 8th after the Full Moon day of Mārgaśirṣa (called āgrahāyaṇī) i. e. in the dark halves of Mārgaśirṣa, Pausa (or Taisa) and Māgha. The Gobhila Gr. III 10. 48 mentions that the Aṣṭakās are four and in all flesh is to be offered, but that according to Kauṭsa and in all flesh is to be offered, but that Gautama, Audgāhamāni and Vārṣakhaṇḍī prescribe only three and Gobhila follows these latter. The Bauḍ Gr II. 11. 1 provides that the three Aṣṭakā homas are performed in the months of Taisa, Māgha and Phālguṇa. Aśv. Gr II. 4. 2 refers to an option that Aṣṭakā rites were performed only on one Aṣṭamī (and not on three or four). The Bauḍ Gr. provides that the rite may be compressed into the three days (7th, 8th and 9th) of the dark half of Māgha or even in one day (i e 8th of the dark half of Māgha). The Hir. Gr (II 14 2) IV ]. describes only one Astakā rite viz. the Ekāstaka in the dark half of Māgha. The Bhāradvāja Gṛhya II. 15 also speaks of only Ekāstaka but adds that the 8th, of the dark half of Māgha on which the moon is in Jyestha is called Ekāṣṭakā. According to Hir. Gṛ. II. 14 and 15 the one Aṣṭakā extended over three days viz. 8th, 9th (on which a cow was sacrificed for the pitṛs) and 10th (which was the Anvaṣṭakā). The Vaikhānasa-smṛtisūtra (eḍ by Caland) IV. 8 says that Aṣṭakā is to be performed on the 8th of the dark half of Māgha and Bhādrapada or on the 7th, 9th or 10th tithi.

There is divergence in the offerings also. The Kāthaka Gṛ (61. 3), Jaimini Gṛ. 2, 3 and Śān, Gṛ, (III. 12. 2 ) provide that on the three different Aṣṭakās the offerings are of cooked vegetables, flesh and apūpas (cakes), while the Pār. Gṛ. III. 3 and Khādira Gṛ III. 3. 29-30 put apūpas for the first Aṣṭakā (and hence Gobhila Gṛ. III. 10. 9 designates it apūpāṣṭakā) and boiled vegetables on the last. According to Khādira Gṛ. III. 4. 1 a cow is sacrificeḍ According to Āśv. Gṛ. II. 4. 7-10, Gobhila Gṛ. IV. 1. 18-22, Kauśika 138. 2, Bauḍ Gṛ. II, 11, 51-61, on the 8th day very many options are given, viz. either to sacrifice a cow or a ram or a goat; or to offer some jungle flesh that may be available or flesh mixed with sesame and honey, or flesh of the rhinoceros, deer, buffalo, ram, boar, spotted deer, hare, Rohita deer, pigeons, śārṅga and other birds, or an old red goat; fishes or rice cooked in milk so as to form thin gruel, or gifts only of uncooked corn or fruits and roots, or gold may be offered or only grass for cows or oxen or one may burn some thickets in a forest or present jars for holding water to those deeply learned in the Veda or should recite the mantras relating to śrāddhas, saying 'this is the Aṣṭakā I offer,' but one should not remain without observing the Aṣṭakā day in some such manner as the above ⁵⁹

It is remarkable that although the Vārtika quoted above, and the Kāthakagṛhya 61. 1 state that the word 'Aṣṭakā' is applied to a rite in which the pitṛs are the deities worshipped, the greatest divergence prevails as to the devatā of the Aṣṭakāṣ The Āśv Gr. (II. 4. 3 and II. 5. 3-5) provides that on the 7th of the dark half the offerings are made to the pitṛs and on the 9th also, but Āśv. II. 4. 12 refers to the eight options as regards the deity of the 8th day, viz Visve-devāḥ (all the gods), Agni, Rātrī (night), Nakṣatras (constellations), the seasons, the Pitṛs, Paśus (cattle). The Gobhila Gr. III, 10 1 starts ⁶⁰ by saying that Night is the devatā of Aṣṭakā, but adds that there are other views about the devatā being Agni, the Pitṛs, Prajāpati, Ṛtus (seasons) or all Godṣ

The procedure of Aṣṭakā comprises three parts, viz. homa, inviting brāhmaṇas for dinner (up to seeing them go away after dinner) and the rite called Anvastakya or Anvaṣṭakā. When the Aṣṭakās were deemed to be three or four performed in the several months noted above, all these were gone through at each Aṣṭakā. When the Aṣṭakā rite was performed only in one month i. e. after the Full moon in Māgha, the above parts were performed on three days, 7th, 8th and 9th of the dark half. When compressed in one day only, they must have been performed one after another on the same day.

Many of the Gṛhyasūtras, such as those of Āśvalāyana, Kauśika, Gobhila, Hiraṇyakeśin and Baudhāyana describe a very elaborate procedure in the case of Aṣṭakāṣ One of the shortest being that contained in Ap. Gr. (VIII 21 and 22) is given here by way of sample ⁶⁰. After defining Ekāṣṭakā (Ap. VIII. 21. 10) Ap. proceeds: He (the performer of the Aṣṭakā rite) should perform subsidiary (or preparatory) rites in the evening of the previous day (i. e. on the 7th of the dark half). He cooks (or bakes) a cake from rice taken up (from a heap) in four cups; according to some teachers the cake is prepared on eight potsherds (like a purodāśa) After the actions up to the 'Āyabhāgas'⁶¹ have been performed in the same way as at the Amāvāsyā and Full Moon sacrifices he makes with his joined hands oblations of the cakes with the next verse⁶². The rest of the cake that is already baked is divided by him into eight parts and offered to the brāhmaṇas⁶³. On the following day he prepares the cow for immolation by touch- ing her with a darbha with the words 'I make thee that are agreeable to the Fathers ready (for sacrifice)'. Having silently (i. e. without uttering the word svāhā) offered five⁶⁴ oblations of clarified butter, having cooked the omentum of that (cow) and having spread under (the cooked omentum) and sprinkled over it clarified butter he offers it with a palāśa leaf from the middle or the end of the stalk with the next verse (i e. Āp M. P. II. 20. 28)⁶⁵. He offers boiled rice together with the flesh (of the cow) with the next verses (seven from Āp. M. P. II. 20. 29–35). He offers the food of flour cooked (in milk) with the next verse (Āp. M. P. II. 21. 1 'Ukthyāścātirātraśca')⁶⁶. Then (he offers) the oblations of clarified butter with the follow- ing (eight) verses (Āp. M. P. II. 21. 2–9). The rites from Sviṣṭakṛt⁶⁷ down to the placing of the piṇḍas are the same as at the monthly śrāddha (described in Āp. Gr. VIII 21. 1–9). Some teachers prescribe that the piṇḍas are to be offered the day after the Aṣṭakā (i. e. on the 9th of the dark half). Here follows another method (of celebrating the Aṣṭakā rite). He sacrifices curds with his joined hands in the same way as he offers the cake. Having left over from the meat (of the cow) as much as may be required, he performs on the day following (the.Astakā day) the Anvaṣṭakā, rite Its procedure is explained by the description of the monthly śrāddha.

Though Āp. Gr. (II. 5 3) and Śāṅ. Gr. III. 13. 7 state that the Anvaṣṭakya rite follows the procedure of Pindapitryajña, some Grhyasūtras (such as Khādira III. 5, Gobhila IV 2-3) give very elaborate descriptions of that rite. The Āśv. Gr. and Viṣṇudharmasūtra 74 follow a middle course. The description in Āśv. Gr. is comparatively brief and it is set out below. It may be noted that some Grhya-sūtras state that the Anvaṣṭakya rite is performed,on the 9th or 10th of the dark half (e. g. Khādira Gr III. 5. 1 ‘navamīm daśamīm vānvaṣṭakyam’). Further, it may be stated that though most Grhya-sūtras call the rite Anvaṣṭakya still it is also called, Anvaṣṭakā by Pār. Gr. III. 3. 10, Manu IV. 150, Viṣṇudharmasūtra 74. 1 and 76. 1. The most notable peculiarity of this rite is that therein female ancestors are invoked and offerings are made to them of which liquor (surā), scum of boiled rice, collyrium, salves and garlands form part. Though some sūtras (like Āśv. Gr. II. 5) declare that the Aṣṭakā and Anvaṣṭakya are modelled on the monthly śrāddha or Pindapitryajña, others (like the Bauḍ Gr. III. 12. 1, Gobhila Gr. IV. 4., Khādira III. 5. 35) say that the Aṣṭakā or Anvaṣṭakya is the norm which is followed in the Pindapitryajña and all the śrāddhaṣ The Kāṭhaka Gr. (66. 67. 1, 68. 1, 69. 1) avers that the first śrāddha, the other śrāddhas (such as sapindīkaraṇa), Pāsuśrāddha (in which the flesh of an animal is offered) and the śrāddha performed every month follow the procedure of Aṣṭakā. The Pinda-pitṛyajña could be offered on amāvasyā only by one who was āhutāgni (i. e. had kept the sacred vedic fires). It is impossible to believe that everyone became āhitāgni. The case was probably the reverse i. e. only a few became āhutāgnis and the rest had only the gṛhya fire or many of the rest were without even the gṛhya fire. It appears possible that all were required to offer śrāddha on amāvasyā on the analogy of pindapitṛyajña. As the latter became rare, the requirement of offering śrāddha on amāvasyā remained and in the sūtras and smṛtis all the details were mentioned under māsiśrāddha and in the case of the other śrāddhas the sūtras and smṛtis pointed out only what was to be omitteḍ It is owing to this that the māsiśrāddha came to be called the prakṛti and the other śrāddhas were called vikṛtis⁶⁸. or variations of the māsiśrāddha. Most of the details of the piṇḍapitṛyajña were required in māsiśrāddha and a few (such as giving arghya, gandha, dīpa) were added and more elaborate rules evolveḍ

The Anvaṣṭakya⁶⁹ is described in the Āśv. Gr. (II. 2. 5–15) as follows :—Having prepared a portion of the same meat,⁷⁰ having established the fire on a surface sloping towards the south, having fenced it in and made a door on the north side of the enclosed shed, having strewn round the fire three times sacrificial grass with its roots without touching it, turning the left side (of one's body) towards the fire, he should place down the things to be offered, boiled rice, boiled rice mixed with sesamum, rice cooked in milk, meal pap with curds and meal pap with honey. The ceremony should follow the ritual of the Piṇḍapitṛyajña (vide Āśv. Śr. II 6). Having sacrificed (part of the foods specified except meal-pap) with honey let him offer portions of those substances to the pitṛs and to their wives with the addition of liquor and the scum of boiled rice. Some place the portion to be offered into pits, which may be two or six. In those situated to the east he should present the offerings to the pitṛs; in those to the west, to the wiveṣ Thereby the cere- mony celebrated in the rainy season on the Maghā day in the dark fortnight after the full moon of Prauṣṭhapada (i. e. Bhādrapada) has been declareḍ And thus he should offer (a festival like the Anvaṣṭakā) to the pitṛs every month, observing uneven ⁷¹ numberṣ He should give food at least to nine (brāhmaṇas) or to any un-even number of brāhmaṇaṣ (Food should be given) to an even number on auspicious occasions ⁷² or on the performance of meritorious deeds; to an uneven number (on other occasions). The rite is performed from left to right. Barley grains are to be used instead of sesamuṃ

The Anvaṣṭakya rite was performed after each of the three or four Aṣṭakās and if only one Aṣṭakā in Māgha were perform- ed, then after the 8th of the dark half.

There are two views about the rite called Māghyāvarṣa ⁷³ in Aśv. Gr. II. 5. 9. Acc. to Nārāyaṇa, the rite is performed in the dark half of Bhādrapada for three days on 7th, 8th and 9th.⁷⁴ The other view is that it is a rite like the Aṣṭakās but performed on the 13th of the dark half of Bhādrapada, when generally the moon is in the Maghā nakṣutra. There is doubt about the very name of the rite, as the msṣ present various forms (vide Oldenberg’s note in S. B. E. vol. 29, p 103 on Śāṅ. Gr. III, 13 1). The real name appears to be Māghyāvarṣa or Māghāvarṣa (meaning ‘a śrāddha in the rainy season when the moon is in the Maghā nakṣatra’). The Viṣṇu Dh. S 76 1 ⁷⁵ mentions the following times for offering śrāddha viz. (twelve) Amāvāsyās (in a year), the three Aṣṭakās, the three Anvaṣṭakās, the 13th of the dark half of Bhādrapada when the moon is in the Maghā asterism, the seasons of śarad and vasanta. In Viṣṇu Dh. S, (78. 52-53) also a śrāddha on the 13th of the dark half of Bhādrapada is highly eulogised Manu III. 273 also states that whatever food mixed with honey is offered on the 13th day in the rainy season when the moon is in Maghā procures endless satisfactioṇ To the same effect are Vas XI 40 (in the rainy season and on Maghā), Yaj I 26 and Varāhapurāṇa. ⁷⁶ In the Hir. Gr. II. 13, 3-4 (edited by Kirste) the name appears to be Madhyāvarsa⁷⁷ and it is provided that meat is obligatory in it, but that if meat cannot be had then vegetables may be offereḍ In Pār.⁷⁸ Gr. (III. 3) the name (as printed) is madhyāvarsa which is said to be a 4th Astakā in which only vegetables are offereḍ Aparārka (p. 422) also appears to call the rite ‘madhyā- varsa.’ In the Bhavisyapurāna⁷⁹ (Brahma-parva), chap. 183. 4 also this rite is referred to but it is said that therein meat is to be offereḍ It appears probable that this ancient rite on the 13th of the dark half of Bhādrapads is a precursor of the Mahālayāśrāddha of later timeṣ

If Āśvalāyana’s view, viz. that there are four Astakās in Hemanta and Śiśira, were followed and if the Māghyāvarsa- śrāddha were to be performed on the 8th of the dark half of Bhādrapada as Nārāyana holds, then there would be five Astakās in all. Bhattoji in his Caturvimśatimatasanagraha says so.⁸⁰

Considerations of space forbid the comparison of the above procedure from Āp. Gr. and Āśv. Gr. with the procedure described in the other Grhyasūtraṣ It should be noted that several of the sūtras often employ the same mantras in the various stages of the rite (as pointed out above in notes 813-814).

It must be said that the Astaka śrāddhas gradually fell into oblivion and are not performed now.

The foregoing discussion establishes that the monthly śrāddha on Amāvasyā was the model śrāddha (_prakṛti_) of which the Astakās and other śrāddhas were copies ( vikṛtis ) with suitable modifications, though a few dissident texts reverse the positioṇ

In the Gobhilagṛhya (IV. 4. 3 ff) another śrāddha called 'Anvāhārya' is prescribed after the Piṇḍapitṛyajña on the same day. The Sāṇ Gṛ. IV. 1. 13 appears also to describe the monthly śrāddha as distinct from the Piṇḍapitṛyajña. Manu (III.122–23) states: 'After performing the Pitṛyajña (i. e. piṇḍapitṛyajña) a brāhmaṇa who keeps sacred fires shall offer every month on the amāvāsyā day the funeral sacrifice Piṇḍānvāhāryaka.⁸¹ The wise call the monthly offering to the Manes Anvāhārya and that must be carefully performed with the approved kinds of flesh mentioned below.' From this it appears that one who has consecrated the śrauta fires (i. e. an āhitāgni) was to perform the piṇḍapitṛyajña in the śrauta fires and also perform the same day another śrāddha after the piṇḍapitṛyajña, while those who had not consecrated śrauta fires were to perform on amāvāsyā a śrāddha in the gṛhya fire, which was called piṇḍānvāhār- yaka or simply anvāhārya and also were to offer piṇḍapitṛ- yajña in smārta fire (vide Sat. Śrauta II. 7. 64 'gṛhyagnau anāhitāgnaḥ'). From inquiries made I learn that nowadays most Agnihotrins (at least in the Deccan) do not perform Piṇḍa- pitṛyajña at all or perform it only once a year and that no one performs the Piṇḍānvāhāryaka śrāddha. It is further to be noted that in smārta yajñas no one now sacrifices an animal but employs instead māsa grain and there are āhutāgnis who do not offer meat in śrauta sacrifices also, but only piṣṭa-paśu (an effigy of an animal made of flour).

The literature on śrāddha is enormous in extent. From the Vedic Samhitās several thousand years ago up to medieval and modern commentaries and digests the various matters connect- ed with śrāddha have been dealt with in more or less detail. The Purāṇas contain thousands of verses on śrāddha. An adequate and thorough treatment of all this vast mass would fill a separate volume, but considerations of space forbid such an attempt here. All that can be attempted here at the most (and that too not in all cases) is to present matters chronologically i. e. describe how śrāddha was dealt with in the Samhitas and Brāhmaṇa texts, then in the comparatively older Gṛhya and Dharma sūtras, then in such early smṛtis as those of Manu and Yāj., then in some representative Purāṇas, then in the early commentaries of Medhātithi, Vijñāneśvara and Aparārka, and then in the medieval digestṣ Even in this way only a skeleton of the ceremonies described in some representative work of each class can be exhibiteḍ Many differences of detail which arose owing to lapse of time, the locality, the śākhā and usages of each writer, his individual inclination and his ability, will have to be passed over altogether. In the days of the Purāṇas the differences in detail in the several śākhās have been adverted to.⁸¹ Apart from the smṛtis and passages of the Mahābhārata (such as Anuśāsana chap. 87–92) and com- mentaries on the Sūtras, on Manu, Yāj. and other smṛtis, the digests on śrāddha are legioṇ Only the following digests (arranged in chronological order) have been laid under contribution in this volume: Kalpataru on śrāddha; the Hāralatā and Pitṛdayitā of Aniruddha; the Smṛtyarthasāra; the Smṛticandrikā; the Caturvargacintāmaṇi (section on śrāddha) of Hemādri (which in the B. I. edition covers 1716 pages); the Śrāddhaviveka of Rudradhara; the Madanapārijāta; the Śrāddhasāra (a part of Nṛsimhaprasāda); Śrāddhakriyā-kaumudī of Govindānanda; the Śrāddhatattva of Raghunandana; the Śrāddhasaukhya (part of Todarānanda); the Śrāddhakalpalatā of Vināyaka alias Nandapaṇḍita; the Nirnayasindhu; the Śrāddhamayūkha of Nīlakaṇṭha; the Śrāddhaprakāśa (part of Viramitrodaya); the Śrāddhacandrikā of Divākarabhaṭṭa; the Smṛtimuktāphala (on śrāddha); the Dharmasindhu; the Bālambhaṭṭī, a commentary on the Mitākṣarā. While presenting this exhaustive and heterogeneous material, some generalisations, when called for, will be made here and there. It will be seen later on how several minor matters such as whether food should be offered to gods before śrāddha, definitions of words like parivitti, vṛṣalīpati increased the extent of treatises on śrāddha. We should now turn to the several matters relating to śrāddhaṣ

First comes the question as to who are entitled to offer śrāddha (śrāddhādhikārin ). This matter has been already dealt with in the H. of Dh. vol. III p 739 ff., and on pp. 256–261 (notes 581–588) above. It would be noticed that some (like the Vispudharmasūtra ) prescribe that whoever takes the wealth of the deceased should offer piṇḍas (i. e. perform śrāddha for him), while others said that whoever was preferable as entitled to offer piṇḍas to the deceased propositus was to take the wealth. A few matters not mentioned there may be added here. In the Śāntiparva 65. 13-21 it is narrated⁸² that emperor Mandhātr was told by Indra how Yavanas, Kirātas and similar non-Aryan peoples (that are styled Dasyus in the Epic) are to be made to conduct themselves and it is stated that all dasyus may perform Pitṛyajñas (in which they should feed men of their own kind and make monetary gifts to them) and offer money to brāhmaṇas also. The Vāyupurāṇa (83. 112) also speaks of the Mlecchas as persons that offer oblations to Pitṛṣ The general rule is stated by the Gobhila- smṛti⁸³ that the husband should not offer piṇḍa to his wife even if she dies sonless, nor a father to his son nor an elder brother to a younger brother. The moral of the story of Nimī who performed śrāddha for his predeceased son and repented for having done so as it was dharmasańkara is the same. Vide Anuśāsanaparva 91. Aparārka (p. 538) quotes a verse from Śattrimśan-mata that a father should not perform the śrāddha of his son nor an elder brother of a younger one. But Brhat- parāśara (p. 153) appears to state that even this general rule may have to be set aside sometimeṣ Baudhāyana and Vṛddhāśātātapa (g by Sṃ C. on śrāddha p. 337) allow a śrāddha (except sapiṇḍikaraṇa) to be performed by any one for any relative through affection, particularly at Gayā. It is emphas- ized ⁸⁴ that he alone deserves to be called _putra_, who, while the father is alive, obeys his words, and gives plenty of food ( to brāhmaṇas) every year (after his father's death) and who offers piṇḍas (to his ancestors) at Gayā. The general rule laid down was that a child, whose _upanayana_ has not been performed, is like a _śūdra_ and lacks authority to utter Vedic passages (vide Ap. Dh. S. II. 6. 15. 19, Gaut. II. 4-5, Vaṣ II. 6, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 28. 40, Manu II. 172).⁸⁵ But an exception was recognized by almost all these authorities that a son, though his _upanayana_ may not have been performed, can repeat the Vedic mantras required in funeral riteṣ Medhātithi on Manu II. 172 explains that a minor son, even though not initiated into Vedic study by _upanayana_, can offer water to his father, perform the _navaśrāddhas_ (mentioned above in ṇ 593) and repeat such mantras as ‘_śundhantām pitaraḥ_’ required in these rites, but since he has no _śrauta_ or _gṛhya_ fire of his own he can not per- form such _śrāddhas_ as the _pārvaṇa_. The Smṛtyarthasāra (p. 56) provides that boys whose _upanayana_ has not been per- formed, women and _śūdras_ should get _śrāddhas_ performed through a priest or they may themselves perform them without mantras but only mention the name and _gotra_ of the deceased or with the two mantras ‘_devebhyo namaḥ_’ and ‘_pitṛbhyaḥ svadhā namaḥ_’. The above discussion shows that men and women, adults as well as children, those who are _upanīta_ as well as those that are _anupanīta_ are under an obligation to per- form _śrāddha_.

Tai. S. I. 8. 5. 1, Tai. Br. I. 6. 9 (which will be quoted later on) show that _śrāddha_ was offered to three immediate ancestors, father, grand-father, great-grand-father. The Bauḍ Dh. S. (I. 5. 113-115) states that there is a group of seven persons closely knit together that is called _avibhaktadāya sapiṇḍas_ viz. great-grand-father, grand-father, father, the man himself (who offers pindas to the preceding three), his full brothers, his son from a wife of the same caste, the grandson and great grand-son; that sakulyas are those that are called ‘vibhaktabāyādas’, that the wealth of the deceased descends to those who are born of the body of the deceased ⁸⁶. Manu IX. 137 (= Vaṣ 17.5 = Viṣṇu Dh. S. 15. 46) solemnly ⁹⁰ affirms: 'by (the birth of) a son a man wins the worlds (heaven &c. ), he secures immortality by a grandson and by the grandson of a son he reaches the abode of the Sun'. This verse shows that all the three despondants of a person confer equally great spiritual benefit on hiṃ Yāj. also (in I. 78) lumps the three together (without making any distinction between them) when he says ‘since a man secures perpetuation of lineage and heaven by means of son, grand-son and great-grand-son’. Therefore when Manu (IX. 106) says that by the birth of a son a man discharges his debt to his progenitors the Dāyabhāga (XI. 34) explains that the word putra stands for the three descendants up to the great-grand-son, since all the three are entitled to perform the pār-vaṇa-śrāddha and equally benefit the ancestors by the pindas they offer, and that the word putra is not to be taken literally but only as illustrative in order to include the great-grandson, since one may with difficulty find a text expressly mentioning the adhikāra of the grandson (as a performer of śrāddha and taker of wealth) but there is no text expressly mentioning the great-grandson separately (as the taker of wealth and giver of pinda) ⁸⁸. On Yāj. II. 50 which lays down that when the father dies or has gone to a distant country or is overwhelmed by calamities (incurable diseases or the like) his debts should be paid by the sons or grandsons, the Mit. adds that even when a son or grandson receives no ancestral property the father’s debts must be paid, the only difference being that the son has to pay the principal as well as the interest, while the grandson has to return only the principal and has to pay no interest and the Mit. quotes a verse of Bṛhaspati ⁸⁹ where all the three descendants are mentioned in one breath and the Mit. adds that the great-grandson has not to pay even the principal if he has received no ancestral property. This last remark implies that the Mit. regarded that the great-grandson was also included in the extended sense of 'putra'. Yaj. II, 51 begins by saying that whosoever takes the wealth of a deceased person has to pay the latter's debts, so the great-grandson would have to pay the great-grand-father's debts if he received the assets of the grand-father. Therefore the Mit. on II, 50 expressly mentions that a great-grandson need not pay his great-grand-father's debts if he received no assets, because, otherwise being included in the extended meaning of putra, he would have had to pay. There was no necessity to bring in or mention the prapautra under II, 50 if the Mit. did not include the prapautra in the word putra. Again on Yaj. II, 51 ('putrahinasya rikthinah') the Mit. included even prapautra under the word putra. This shows that the Mit. is quite conscious that the three descendants of a man form one group and succeed to his estate and liabilities and putra includes three descendants wherever the context so requireṣ If the word 'putra' is not to be taken as only illustrative and as including both grandson and great-grandson, serious difficulties will arise even in the interpretation of Yaj. on which the Mit. commentṣ For example, in Yaj. II. 135-136 it is said that when a sonless man dies his wife, daughters and other heirs (named there) succeed one after another. If 'putra' is taken to mean only 'son' and no one else, then on the death of a man without a son his wife or daughter (whoever is alive) will take the wealth even if a son's son existṣ But that would be absurd and is not stated by any one. Therefore the word putra has to be interpreted in a wider sense in a proper context. Many works such as the Vyavahāramayūkha, the Virāmitrodaya, the Dattakamīmānsā interpret the word 'putra' as including three generationṣ Therefore, though the Mit. in its remarks on inheritance and succession expressly names the son and grand- son only (lit. it should have mentioned only the son) it must be taken as including the great-grandson also, particularly in view of the fact that it refers to the great-grandson in its comment on Yāj. I. 50 and 51 as taking the riktha which the Mit. (on Yāj. II. 114) interprets as apratibandha dāya. Baud- hāyana, Yājñavalkya speak of the three descendants and Śaṅkha- Likhita, Vaṣ XI. 39 and Yama employ ⁹⁰ only the word putra or suta in relation to the three ancestorṣ Therefore, the remark of Dr. Kapadia in ‘Hindu Kinship’ on p. 162 ‘Vijñāne- śvara understands by the word putra sons and grandsons only’ is unjustifieḍ It is impossible to hold with Dr. Kapadia that the Mit. ran counter to the express dicta of renowned Smṛtis such as those of Manu, Śaṅkha-Likhita and Purāṇas like the Viṣṇu-purāṇa III. 13.30 (quoted above in note 582) and that in its remarks on succession it forgot its own interpretation of putra on Yāj. II. 51. He has also not correctly understood the words of the Mit. introducing Yāj. II. 137: ‘sons and grandsons take the wealth; in their absence, the wife and others; thus it is said (by me)’. This is wrong for several reasonṣ ‘Wife and others take the wealth’ is said by Yāj. (in II. 135–36). The following words are ‘now (the author) declares an exception to both’. This clearly refers to Yāj. (II. 137) and not to Vijñāne- śvara and so ‘uktam’ also must refer to Yāj. and not to Vijñāneśvara. Therefore, according to the Mit. the great-grand- son is included in the extended meaning of the word ‘putra’, is entitled just like a son or a grandson to offer śrāddha (in default of a son or grandson) and to take the wealth and pay the debts of the ancestor. In the matter of payment of debts there is, on account of the difference in the period that elapses, a difference between all the three descendants if no ancestral wealth is left by the ancestor, viz. the son pays the debt with interest, the grandson only the principal lent but without interest and the great-grandson nothing at all. This shows that even between the son and the grandson that are expressly mentioned by Yāj. II. 50 as to the payment of debts there is a difference and that the great-grandson had to pay nothing when no ancestral property existed he was not mentioned at all in Yāj. II. 50. Just as the king is an ultimate heir and also the guardian of all minors, so he is like the son of a person (who has no relatives left) for performing śrāddhaṣ

The next question is about the times when śrāddha is to be performeḍ It has been seen above (vide H. of Dh. vol. II. p. 696 ff) that long before the time of the daily observances (called Mahāyañjas) were prescribed for each house-holder, viz the sacrifice to beings, that to men, that to the Fathers, that to the gods and that to Veda The Śat. Br. and the Tai. Ā. (II. 10) say further that this daily rite in which one offers śradhā (food) to the Fathers even up to water was called pitṛyajña. Manu III. 70 defines pitṛyajña as tarpaṇa (satiating ancestors with the offerings of water). Manu III. 82 provides that an householder should daily perform a śrāddha with food or with water or with milk, roots and fruits and thus please the Fatherṣ Śrāddha originally meant a sacrifice performed for the Fathers on Amāvasyā (vide Gaut. 15. 1-2)^838a. By applying that word to the daily offering of water to the Manes what is intended to be conveyed is that the special characteristics of śrāddha in the strict sense are to be extended to this daily rite so far as possible. Amāvasyā is of two kinds, Sinīvalī and Kuhū. Those who keep śrauta fires should perform śrāddha on the former, while those who have not kept śrauta fires and śūdras should offer śrāddha on the latter.

Śrāddhas are divided into three classes, nitya, naimittika and kāmya. An observance is called nitya when it is laid down that it must be performed on a certain or fixed occasion (such as every day, on an amāvasyā, or on Aṣṭakā day). What is laid down for being done on an occasion which is uncertain is called naimittika (such as the birth of a son). What is ordained to be done in case one desires a certain reward or fruit is called kāmya (e. g. the performance of a śrāddha on Kṛttikā or Rohinī by one who desires heaven or progeny). The five daily yajñas including pitṛ-yajña are nitya i. e. they must be performed without any eye to any reward therefrom and the non-performance thereof will lead to sinfulnesṣ Passages mentioning the rewards that follow from the performance of obligatory ( nitya ) rites are only laudatory, they only convey that such performances make a man pure, but it is not meant that they are not obligatory and may be performed only if a person desires the rewards or results promised ( i. e. such performances are not kāmya ). Āp. Dh. S. (II. 7. 16. 4-7) provides certain times for the performance of śrāddha viz. that it must be performed in the latter half of every month, that the afternoon is preferable for it, that the last days of the latter half of each month are preferable to the first days of the latter half. Gaut. 15. 3 and Vaṣ XI. 16 say that śrāddha may be performed on any day of the dark half of a month after the 4th day and Gaut. 15. 5 adds that if particularly appro- priate materials or particularly holy brāhmaṇas are available or the performer is near a very sacred place ( such as Gayā ) a śrāddha may be performed on any day. Kūrma (II. 20 23) says The Agnipurāṇa 115. 8 says that at Gayā a śrāddha may be performed on any day ( na kalādi Gayātīrthe dadyāt piṇḍāmśca nityaśaḥ ). Manu (III. 276-278) provides that the days of the dark half of the month beginning with the 10th but excepting the 14th⁹¹ are recommended for śrāddha, that one performing a śrāddha on even lunar days ( i. e. on the 10th, 12th ) and on the even nakṣatras ( i. e. on Bharani, Rohini &c. ) gains the fulfilment of all his desires, that one who worships the Manes on uneven days (11th, 13th &c ) and on uneven constellations ( Kṛttikā, Mṛgaśiras &c ) obtains prosperous offspring and that just as the latter half of a month is IV] preferable to the first half so the afternoon is preferable to the forenoon for the performance of a śrāddha. Anuśāsanaparva 87. Manu III. 276. Yaj. (I. 217-218), the Kūrma (II 20. 2-8), Mārkaṇḍeya (28. 20 ff) and Varāhapurāṇa 13. 33-35 sum up in one place the times for performing śrāddhas as follows: Amāvāsyā, the Aṣṭakā days, lucky days (such as the birth of a son), dark half of a month, the two ayanas (the two days on which the sun appears to start towards the south or north i. e. solstices), possession of sufficient materials (such as rice and pulse or meat), the arrival of a worthy brāhmaṇa, the equinoctial points (visuvat, i. e. the sun's apparent entrance into Aries and Balance), the days on which the sun passes into one rāśi from another, the astrological conjunctions called Vyatīpāta⁹², Gajacchāyā, eclipses of the sun and the moon, when the performer has an intense desire to perform śrāddha--these are times for performing śrāddha. The Mārkan- deya ⁹³ (chap. 28. 22-23), adds that śrāddha should be performed when a man dreams an evil dream and when evil planets affect the nakṣatra of his birth. In an eclipse the appropriate time for śrāddha is what is called Sparaśa Kāla ⁹⁴ (i e. when the eclipse begins), as stated in a verse of Vṛddha-Vasiṣṭha. The Brahmapurāṇa (220. 51-54) contains all the times specified by Yāj. and a few more. Vide also Skandapurāṇa VII. 1. 30-32, Viṣṇupurāṇa III. 14. 4-6, Padma (sṛṣṭi 9. 128-129). Acc. to Viṣṇu Dh. S. 76. 1-2, Amāvasyā, the three Aṣṭākās and the three Anvaṣṭākās, the 13th day of the dark half of Bhādrapada on which the moon is in Maghā, Śarad and Vasanta are obligatory (nitya) times for śrāddha and that if a person does not perform śrāddha on these days he goes to Hell. Viṣṇu Dh. S. (77.1-7) states that the day of the sun's passage from one sign of the zodiac to another, the two equinoctial days, particularly the solsticial days, Vyatipāta, the constellation on which the performer is born, a time of rejoicing (son's birth or the like)—these are kāmya times and a śrāddha performed on these occasions gives infinite pleasure (to the Manes). The Kūrmapurāṇa (Uttarārdha 16. 6-8) says that śrāddhas called kāmya are commended on eclipses, solstice days, equinoctial days and on Vyatipāta and they give infinite pleasure (to the Manes) and śrāddha performed on Saṅkrānti (sun's passage from one sign of the zodiac to another) is inexhaustible and so also on days of birth and on the several nakṣatras śrāddhas should be performeḍ Āp. Dh. S. II. 7. 16. 8-22, Anuśāsana 87, Vāyu 89. 10-19, Yāj I 262-263, Brahmapurāṇa 220. 15-21, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 78. 36-50 Kūrmapurāṇa (II. 20.17-22), Brahmāṇḍa III. 17.10-22 state what rewards a man gets if he performs śrāddhas on each of the days from the first to the 15th of the dark half These lists do not completely agree with each other. That of Āp. being probably the most ancient, is set out here —Śrāddha performed on each of the 15 days of the dark half respectively yields the following results in order, viz. progeny chiefly consisting of females (on 1st tithi of dark half), sons that will be thieves, sons that will be possessed of Vedic learning and the performance of Veda-vratas, son that will own small domestic animals, many sons that will be distinguished (by their learning) and the performer will not die childless, a great traveller and gambler (on the 6th), success in agriculture (on 7th), prosperity (on 8th), one-hoofed animals (on 9th), success in trade (10th day), black iron and tin and lead (on 11th), son possessed of cattle (on 12th), many sons and many friends and handsome children which will die young (13th tithi), success in arms (14th), prosperity (on 15th i. e. Amāvasyā). Gārgya (q by Par. M. I. 2 p. 324) provides that one should not perform śrāddha on Nandā, on Friday, on 13th of the dark half and on the nakṣatra of birth and the preceding and the following nakṣatras for fear of losing one's sons and wealth. The Nandā tithis are 1st, 6th and 11th. The Anusāśana-parva (87.16) provides that he who performs śrāddha on the 13th tithi attains pre-eminence among his agnates, but then the young men in his house die as a consequence.

The śrāddhas performed on the days mentioned in Viṣṇu Dh. S. 77. 1-6 are naimittika and those performed on certain tithis and days of the week for securing certain rewards would be kāmya śrāddhaṣ According to Par M. I. 1 p. 63 the performance of obligatory (nitya) actions is saṁskāraka (i e. effects a purifying change in the mind making it fit for higher things), while in some cases it may also produce the desire to know the Reality behind the appearances (i e. it is 'vividisā- janaka' as indicated by the Gītā 9. 27). Jaimini (VI. 3. 1-7) establishes the proposition that the nitya acts (such as Agnihotra, Darśa-pūrṇamāsa-yāga) must be performed even though the performer is unable to perform a subsidiary part of the rite; while Jai. VI. 3. 8–10 provide that every part of kāmya actions must be performed and if the performer thinks that he would be unable to perform all he should not undertake to perform a kāmya rite at all.^839a

The Viṣṇudharmasūtra (78. 1-7) states that one performing śrāddha on Sunday secures everlasting freedom from dis- ease and those who perform śrāddha on Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday (Jaiva), Friday and Saturday respec- tively secure happiness (or admiration by people), victory in battle, all desires, such learning as he desires, wealth and long life. The Kūrma (II. 20. 16–17) also expatiates on the rewards for śrāddhas on the several days of the week.

The Viṣṇu-Dharmasūtra (78. 8–15) mentions what rewards follow from performance of śrāddhas on the 28 nakṣatras from Krttikā to Bharaṇī (including Abhijit which is placed after Uttarāṣādhā and before Śravana). Yāj I. 265–268, Vāyu chap. 82, Mārkaṇḍeya-purāṇa 30. 8–16, Kūrma (II. 20 9–15), Brahmapurāṇa 220. 33–42, Brahmāṇḍa (Upodghātapāda 18.1 ff) also deal with the same topic, but all these works do not present complete agreement For example, Viṣṇu Dh S. and Yāj. agree that śrāddha performed on Krttikā, Rohiṇī, Aśvinī and Bharaṇī yield as rewards heaven, offspring, horses and longevity, but they disagree in several others e. g. while Viṣṇu says that prosperity, beauty (or happiness) and all desires are obtained by performing śrāddha on the Pusya, Āśleṣā and Maghā nakṣatras respectively, Yāj. provides that a śrāddha on these three yields strength, son and eminence. The Anu-śāsanaparva 89 and Vāyupurāṇa 82 set out the rewards of śrāddhas on the several nakṣatras from Krttikā as declared by Yama to Śaśabindu.

It is stated in the Agnipurāṇa ⁹⁵ that śrāddhas performed at a holy place and on days that are called Yugādi and Manvādi yield inexhaustible gratification (to the pitrs) The Viṣṇupurāṇa ⁹⁶, Matsyapurāṇa (17. 4–5), Padma V. 9. 130–131, Varāhapurāṇa and Prajāpati-smṛti verse 22 and Skanda VII. 1. 205 33–34 state that the third tithi of Vaiśākha (bright half), the 9th of the bright half of Kārtika, the 13th of the dark half of Bhādrapada and 15th tithi of the dark half of Māgha are called Yugādi tithis (i. e the first days of the four Yugas from Krta). Matsya 17. 6–8, Agnipurāṇa 117. 61–64 and 209. 16–18, Saurapurāṇa 51. 33–36, Padmapurāṇa (Sr̥ṣṭi 9. 132–135) mention the first tithis of the 14 Manus (or Manvantaras) as follows : 9th of the bright half of Āśvina, 12th of the bright half of Kārtika, the third of the bright half of Caitra and of Bhādrapada, the amāvasyā of Phālguna, the 11th of the bright half of Pauṣa, 10th of bright half of Āṣāḍha and the 7th of the bright half of Māgha, the 8th of the dark half of Śrāvaṇa, the Full Moon of Āṣāḍha, Kārtika, Phālguna, Caitra and Jyeṣṭha. The Matsyapurāṇa list is quoted in the Sṃ C. I. p. 58, Kr̥tyaratnākara p. 543, Par. M. I. 1. p. 156 and I. 2 p. 311, and the Madanapārijāta p. 540. The orders in the Skandapurāṇa VII. 1. 205. 36–39 and the Smr̥tyarthasāra (p. 9) are slightly different. In the Skandapurāṇa (Nāgarakhaṇḍa) the first tithis of thirty kalpas from Śveta onwards are specified as fit for śrāddha, but are passed over here.

Āp. Dh. S. II. ⁹⁷ 7. 17. 23–25, Manu III 280, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 77. 8–9, Kūrma (II. 16. 3–4), Brahmāṇḍa III. 14. 3, Bhaviṣya I. 185. 1 forbid the performance of śrāddha at night or at twilight or when the sun has just risen except in the case of an eclipse of the mooṇ Āp. adds that when once a śrāddha is begun in the afternoon and owing to some cause there is delay and the sun sets then the performer should perform the remaining rites the next day and he should observe a fast till the placing of the piṇḍas on the darbhaṣ Viṣṇu Dh. S. declares that śrāddha performed during an eclipse satisfies the Manes as long as the moon and stars exist and brings to the performer all advantages and the satisfaction of all his desires, while the Kūrmapurāṇa threatens that he who would not perform a śrāddha in an eclipse sinks (incurs sins or becomes ruined) as a cow in muḍ The Mit. on Yāj. I. 217 is careful to point out that though there is a prohibition against eating during an eclipse of the sun or moon, that prohibition would only affect the eater ( the brāhmaṇa who eats śrāddha repast in an eclipse) but not the giver who will secure happiness (or good results) thereby.⁹⁸ Very learned disquisitions are held in Aparārka p. 465 ff, Hemādri p. 313 ff and other writers and digests as to the meaning of aparāhṇa which is the time for śrāddha prescribed by Manu (III. 278). There are several viewṣ Some hold that the part of the day after noon is ‘after-nooṇ’ The word ‘pūrvāhṇa’ occurs in Rg. X. 34. 11. Others relying on a śruti ⁹⁹ text for gods, mid-day for men and afternoon for pitṛs’ hold that the third part of the day divided into three parts is ‘aparāhṇa.’ A third view is that aparāhṇa is the 4th part of the day divided into five parts and they rely ¹⁰⁰ on Śat. Br. II. 2. 3 9. The five parts are called prātaḥ, saṅgava, madhyandina (or madhyāhṇa), aparāhṇa and sāyāhṇa (or sāyam or astagamana). The first three are expressly mentioned even in the Ṛgveda V. 76. 3 Prajāpati-smṛti (verses 156–157) says that each of these five parts extends over three muhūrtas (the day being divided into fifteen muhūrtas). It further states that kutapa is the 8th muhūrta from sunrise and that śrāddha should be begun in kutapa and should not last beyond Rauhina muhūrta and that five muhūrtas (from 8th to 12th) are the maximum time for śrāddha. ¹⁰¹ The word kutapa has eight meanings as noted by the Sṃ C. (śrāddha) p. 433 and Hemādri on śrāddha p. 320. The word is derived from ‘ku’ meaning ‘condemned’ (i. e. sin) and ‘tapa’ means ‘what burnṣ’ The eight ¹⁰² meanings of ‘kutapa’ are ‘midday, a vessel of rhinoceros horn, woollen seat or blanket from Nepal, silver, darbhas, sesame, cows and daughter’s soṇ’ The general rule is that śrāddhas are performed in the afternoon (but this applies to śrāddha on New moon, Mahālaya, Aṣṭakā and Anvastaka śrāddhas), while Vṛddhiśrāddha and śrāddha in which only corn is offered (āmāśrāddha) are performed in the morning. Medhātithi on Manu III. 245 quotes a smṛti text on this ¹⁰³ The Trikāṇḍamandana (II. 150, 162) provides that when it is not possible to perform a religious rite at the time prescribed for it as appropriate, it should be performed at some other time thereafter and that, between the proper time of a rite and the means, the former is to be preferred and one should not wait for a time later than the proper one with the desire of being able to collect all the principal materialṣ ¹⁰³

A few words must be said about the proper places for the performance of a śrāddha. Manu (III 206–207) lays down that the performer should make efforts to secure a spot sloping to the south and smear it with cowdung, a spot that is pure and unfrequented (by many persons) and that the Fathers are pleased by śrāddha at naturally clean spots or the banks of rivers and spots that are unfrequenteḍ Yaj. I. 227 very briefly puts the requirements by saying that the place of śrāddha should be covered on all sides, should be pure and sloping to the south. Śaṅkha says: ¹⁰⁴ ‘one should not perform śrāddha on the backs of bulls, elephants and horses, nor on raised earth platforms nor on land owned by others’. The Kūrmapurāṇa states ¹⁰⁵ ‘Forests, sacred mountains, holy places, temples—these have no (definite) owner and they cannot be private property (of any one)’. Yama provides ¹⁰⁶ ‘if one offers śrāddha to his pitṛs in spots belonging to others, that śrāddha rite is destroyed by the pitṛs of the owner of those spotṣ Therefore, a man should perform śrāddha on holy spots, on river banks, in sacred places and particularly in land belonging to himself, in bowers near hills and on mountain tops’ The Viṣṇudharma-sūtra chap 85 mentions numerous holy places and then adds ‘in these and other tīrthas, big rivers, on all natural sandy banks, near streams, on mountains, in bowers, forests, groves and spots that look charming because of being smeared with cowdung (śrāddha may be performed)’ Śaṅkha (14 27-29) states ‘whatever is given in holy Gayā, in Prabhāsa, Puṣkara, Prayāga, in the Naimiṣa forest (on the Sarasvatī), on the banks of the Ganges, Yamunā, Payoṣṇī, on Amarakaṇṭaka, on Narmadā, in Benares, in Kurukṣetra, Bhṛgutunga, on the Himālaya, on Sapta-Veṇī, on Ṛṣikūpa—all that becomes inexhaustible.’ The Brahmapurāṇa (220. 5-7) also specifies river banks, lakes, mountain tops, sacred spots like Puṣkara as the proper places for śrāddha. The Vāyupurāṇa, chap 77 and Matsya 22 contain long lists of sacred places, countries, moun- tains in relation to śrāddhaṣ The Kalpataru (śrāddha p. 40) and Sr. P. p. 147 state that special characteristics of the tīrthas in the several countries that are declared to be fit places for śrāddha should be understood from the inhabitants of those various countrieṣ

Sacred places will be dealt with in a separate section (on tīrthas).

The Viṣṇudharmasūtra ¹⁰⁷ (chap 84) prescribes that śrāddha should not be performed in Mleccha country, nor should one go to a Mleccha country and then defines a Mleccha country as one in which the system of the four varṇas is not established and states that Āryāvarta is beyond that The Vāyupurāṇa provides ¹⁰⁸ that the country of Triśaṅku which is twelve yojanas in extent and which is to the north of the river Mahanadi and to the south of Kikata (i. e. Magadha) is not fit for śrāddha, similarly the countries called Karaskara, Kalinga, the country to the north of the river Sindhu and all countries where the system of varnas and āśramas is not in existence should be sedulously avoided for śrāddhaṣ The Brahmapurāṇa (220. 8–10) makes the somewhat startling remark that the following countries should be avoided for śrāddhas viz. the Kirāta country, Kalinga, Konkana, Krimi (Krivi?), Dasarna, Kumarya (Cape Comorin), Tangana, Kratha, the northern banks of the Sindhu river and the south bank of Narmadā and the east of the Karatoyā.

The Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa ¹⁰⁹ prescribes that for a śrāddha a place (ground) that is full of insects, that is arid, or is burnt by fire, from which proceed sounds that are painful to the ear, that is terrific in its aspect, that emits fetid smell should be avoideḍ

It was also provided from very early times that certain persons and animals are to be ejected from the place where śrāddha is to be performed and are not to be allowed to pollute the śrāddha rite by looking at it or by disturbing it in various other wayṣ Gaut. (15. 25–28) provides that food seen by dogs, cāṇḍālas and those guilty of mahāpātakas becomes unclean (and so unfit); therefore one should offer śrāddha in a covered (or screened) place; or he should strew round about the place sesame or a worthy brāhmaṇa who purifies a row of diners by his presence should perform a śānti for removing the taint caused (by a dog or cāṇḍāla seeing the food &c). Ap. Dh. S. prescribes that the learned condemn the seeing of a śrāddha by dogs and those who (being patita) are excommunicated and that a leper, a bald man, one having sexual intercourse with another’s wife, the son of a brāhmaṇa who follows the profession of arms, the son of a brāhmaṇa woman from a śūdra man— if these eat śrāddha food they pollute the diners sitting to eat in a row. Manu (III. 239–242) states: 'a cāṇḍāla, a village pig or cock, a dog, a woman in her monthly illness, an impotent person—these should not be allowed to see brāhmaṇas engaged in taking dinner. Whatever is seen by these at a homa (agnihotra), at a gift (of cows and gold), whom brāhmaṇas are being fed, or at a religious rite (līke the Darśa-Pūrṇamāsa sacrifice) or at a śrāddha becomes fruitlesṣ A pig taints food (offered to gods or Manes) by merely smolling it, a cock by setting in motion the air with its wings, a dog by casting a glance and a man of low caste by touch. If a servant of even the person who offers śrāddha is lame or squint-eyed or has a limb less or more (i. e. having eleven or nine fingers &c.), he should be ejected from the place where śrāddha is to be performeḍ' It is provided by the Anuśāsanaparva (127.13) that śrāddha food should not be seen by a woman in her monthly illness or by a sonless woman or by one suffering from white leprosy. Viṣṇu-dharmasūtra (82. 3 ff) contains a long list of about 30 persons who are not to be allowed near a śrāddha. The Kūrmapurāṇa (II. 22. 34-35) states that one devoid of a limb, a patita, a leper, one suffering from an open ulcer, an atheist, a cock, a pig, a dog, should be kept far away from a śrāddha; one should also avoid one that has a disgusting appearance, an impure person, one who is naked, a mad man, a gambler, a woman in her monthly course, those that wear indigo-coloured or yellow-red garments and those who follow heretical viewṣ The Mārkaṇḍeya 32 20-24, Vāyu 78. 26-40, Viṣṇupurāṇa III. 16. 12-14 and Anuśāsanaparva 91. 43-44 also contain long lists which are passed over here. The Skanda-purāṇa VI 217. 43 also speaks about a dog, a woman in her monthly illness, a patita and a hog not being allowed to see the śrāddha rite.

The classification of Śrāddhaṣ

Śrāddhas have been variously classifieḍ One classification, viz. into nitya, naimittika and kāmya has already been described above (p. 369) Another classification is that into Ekoddiṣṭa and Parvaṇa¹¹⁰. The first is offered to one deceased person alone, while the latter is performed on the amāvāsyā of a month or in the dark half of Bhādrapada or on saṅkrānti and in it the three paternal ancestors are principally invokeḍ Bṛhas- pati quoted in the Śrāddhaviveka of Rudradhara mentions five classes of śrāddhas as declared by Manu viz. nitya, naimittika, kāmya, vṛddhi and Pārvaṇa¹¹⁰. The Śrāddhaviveka remarks that the sixteen pretaśrāddhas (to be described later on) are included under naimittika and that such śrāddhas as Gosthi-śrāddha enumerated in other smṛtis are included in Pārvaṇa. The Kūrmapurāṇa (II. 20. 26) similarly speaks of the five śrāddhas as enumerated by Manu¹¹². The Mit. on Yāj. I. 217 states that there are five śrāddhas, viz. 'ahar-ahaḥ-śrāddha, pārvaṇa, vṛddhiśrāddha, ekoddiṣṭa and sapiṇḍīkaraṇa. The daily śrāddha is described by Manu III. 82 (= Śaṅkha 13 16 and Matsya 16.4) as one that is performed every day with food (cooked rice, yavas &c.) or with water or with milk, fruits and rootṣ Two verses of Viśvāmitra¹¹³ quoted by several works speak of twelve kinds of śrāddhas, viz. nitya, naimittika, kāmya, vṛddhi-śrāddha (performed on the birth of a son, marriage or similar incident of good luck), sāpiṇḍana (sapiṇḍi-karaṇa), pārvaṇa, gosthiśrāddha, śuddhiśrāddha, karmāṅga, daivika, yātrāśrāddha, puṣṭiśrāddha. Explanations of all these are quoted from the Bhaviṣyapurāṇa by the same workṣ Sāpiṇḍana and Pārvaṇa will be described below. Some of the rest not already defined may be briefly explained as follows: The Gosthi-śrāddha¹¹⁴ is one which is performed when a man be- comes enthusiastic owing to a talk about śrāddha or when many learned men gather together at a sacred place and, finding it impossible to have separate cooking arrangements for each, pool their resources for collecting śrāddha materials and perform simultaneously śrāddha for the pleasure it affords to themselves and for the gratification of pitṛṣ The Śuddhi- śrāddha is one where brāhmaṇas are fed when a person under- goes śuddhi (purification) after being guilty of some sin or transgression (it is a subsidiary act in a prāyaścitta). That śrāddha is called 'karmāṅga' which is performed at the time of the Garbhādhāna rite or at the performance of a soma sacrifice, or at sīmantonnayana, puṁsavana (it is like Vṛddhiśrāddha). That is called daivika śrāddha which is intended to propitiate gods (it is like nityaśrāddha and is performed on the 7th or 12th tithi or the like with sacrificial food). When a man going to a distant country on a pilgrimage or the like performs a śrāddha in which clarified butter is served (to brāhmaṇas) in abundance or when he comes back to his house, that is yātrā- śrāddha. That is called puṣṭiśrāddha which is performed for the health (or fattening) of the body (when taking some medicine for the purpose) or for the increase of one's wealth. Out of these ¹¹⁴ twelve the principal ones are pārvaṇa, ekoddiṣṭa, vṛddhi and sāpiṇḍana. There are works called Śaṇ-navati-śrāddha such as those of Śivabhatta, son of Govinda, and of Raghunātha. The 96 śrāddhas to be performed in a year are briefly enumerated in a verse ¹¹⁵ quoted in the note. They are 12 śrāddhas on the 12 amāvāsyās in the year, the four śrāddhas on the Yugādi days (note 841 above), the fourteen śrāddhas on the Manvantarādi days (p. 375 above), the śrāddhas on 12 saṅkrāntis (i. e. the sun's apparent motion from one sign of the Zodiac to another), the 13 śrāddhas on the Yoga called Dhṛti (i. e. Vaidhṛti) and the 13 śrāddhas on the Vyatipāta yoga, the 16 Mahālaya śrāddhas, the four Anvastakā days (according to Aśv. as noted on pp 359-360), the four Astakā days and the four days (i e. 7th of dark half of the months of Hemanta and Śiśira) of the day previous (to the Astakā ). These classifications and enumerations of śrāddhas will afford an idea how the doctrine of śrāddhas was carried to an exaggerated extent in the course of centurieṣ It goes without saying that only a few people could have indulged in the luxury of so many śrāddhas a year and most people were content with the performance of only one Mahālayaśrāddha and one or two more. It may be noted that Manu (III. 122) first prescribed that on the amāvāsyā of each month an elaborate śrāddha should be performed, but knowing that this was almost impossible Manu recommends to all (III. 281) that an elaborate śrāddha should be performed on three amāvāsyās in one year ¹¹⁸ (viz. in Hemanta, Grīṣma and Varṣā ) and one should perform every day the śrāddha which is one of the five daily sacrifices (III. 82-83). Devala went further and recommended that an elaborate śrāddha may be performed only once a year.

The next important question is about the qualifications of the brāhmaṇas that were invited to dinner on a śrāddha day. Only brāhmaṇas were and are entitled to be invited for śrāddha dinner whoever may be the performer of the śrāddha. In this connection many works contain high eulogies of brāhmaṇas, but they are passed over here, as the eulogy of brāhmaṇas has been already dealt with at some length in H. of Dh vol. II. pp. 37-38, 135-138. It may be noted that the gṛhyasūtras contain a few requirements, but as we proceed the smṛtis and purāṇas go on adding qualifications and enlarging the lists of those that should not be inviteḍ For example, the Āśv. Gr ¹¹⁹ IV. 7. 2, Śāṇ Gr. IV. 1. 2, Āp. Gr VIII. 21. 2, Āp, Dh. S. II. 7.17 4, Hir. Gr II, 10. 2, Bauḍ Gr. II. 10. 5-6 and II 8. 2-3, Gaut. 15.9 provide that the brāhmaṇas to be invited should be possessed of Vedic learning, should be of excellent character (free from anger and passion and possessed of control of mind and senses) and of meritorious conduct, pure, not deficient in a limb or not having an excessive limb (e. g. having six fingers). The Āp Dh S states that he who has studied the three Vedic verses in which the word ‘madhu’ occurs (Ṛg I. 90, 6-8, Vāj. S 13 27-29, Tai. S. IV. 2. 9 3), he who has studied the Trisuparṇa, one who is a Trināciketa, one who has studied the mantras required for the four sacrifices (Aśvamedha, Puruṣamedha, Sarvamedha and Pitṛmedha) or who has performed these four sacrifices, one who keeps the five fires, he who knows the Sāman called Jyestha, he who carries out the duty of daily Vedic study, the son of one who has studied the Veda and is able to teach the whole Veda with its angas, a Śrotriya—these persons sanctify the company if they eat at a funeral repast. Gaut. 15. 28, Bauḍ Dh. S. II, 8.2, Manu III. 185-186, Yaj I, 219, Varāhapurāņa 14.2 contain almost the same words about those who sanctify the company of diners (i. e. who are pañktipāvana). The Anuśāsanaparva (90. 25-31), Kūrmapurāṇa II. 21. 1–14, Matsya 16 7–13, Brahmapurāņa 220. 101-104, Vāyu 79. 56-59 and 83. 52-55, Skanda VI. 217. 21-25 give long lists of pañktipāvana brāhmaņaṣ The Hir. Gr. II. 10.2, Bauḍ Dh. S. II 2. 7, Kūrma (II, 21. 14) and others say that a performer of śrāddha should invite one who is not a relative connected by marriage (such as a maternal uncle) nor one who is of the same gotra, nor one who is connected with the performer by Veda study (i. e. is his teacher or pupil), nor a friend nor one who expects monetary help from the performer. Manu (III. 138-139) provides that one should not invite at a śrāddha dinner a personal friend, that one may gain a friend by making valuable gifts to him (on other occasions), that one should feed at a śrāddha a brāhmaṇa whom he does not deem either his friend or foe and that he who performs śrāddhas and offer- ings to gods chiefly to gain friends reaps no reward after death by those śrāddhas or offeringṣ But Manu III. 144 (= Kūrma II. 21-22) provides that one may invite even a friend but not a foe though the latter may be learneḍ Manu (III. 135–137 and 145–147) lays down that the main or best rule to be followed is to present śrāddha food to those who are devoted to spiritual knowledge, that between a man who has studied one whole recension of the Veda but whose father was not a śrotriya and one who is himself not a śrotriya but whose father had studied a whole recension of the Veda (i. e. whose father was a śrotriya) the latter is the more worthy of the two, that one should strive to feed at a śrāddha an adherent of the Ṛgveda who has studied one entire recension of that Veda or a follower of the Yajurveda who has studied one Śākha thereof or a singer of sāmans who has finished one recension of the Sāmaveda and that if one of these preceding three is honoured and dines at a śrāddha, the ancestors of the performer will be gratified up to the seventh generation for a very long time. Harita (q. by Hemādri on śrāddha p. 392 and Kalpataru on śr. pp. 66–67) describes the qualifications of those who are pańkteya brāhmaṇas viz. they must be born in a high family (possessing four characteri- stics), must be endowed with learning ( of six kinds ) and śīla (character of 13 kinds) and good conduct (of 16 kinds). Śaṅkha-Likhita ¹²⁰ give a long list of pāṅkteya (fit to be associated with in a pāṅkti i. e. row of diners) brāhmaṇas, viz he who knows the Veda and the Vedāṅgas (viz. phonetics, kalpa or śrauta ritual, grammar, Nirukta, metrics and astronomy); one who keeps the five fires; one who has studied the Veda with its aṅgas; one who knows Sāṅkhya, Yoga, Upaniṣads and Dharmaśāstra; a śrotriya, a triṇāciketa, trimadhu, trisuparṇaka and one that has studied Jyeṣṭhasāman; one who has studied Sāṅkhya, Yoga, Upaniṣads and Dharmaśāstra; who is devoted to Veda; who always keeps sacred fires; who is obedient to his parents and devoted to Dharmaśāstra. Similar rules are laid down by Viṣṇu Dh. S 83, Bṛhat-Parāśara p. 150, Vṛddha-Gau-tama p. 581, Prajāpati verses 70-72, Laghu-Śātātapa verses 99-100, Auśanasasmṛti (Jīv. vol. I pp. 523-524). As Medhātithi ¹²¹ on Manu III. 147 says the gist of all these passages is that a learned brāhmaṇa who has studied the Veda, whose conduct is good, whose family is famous, who is the son of a śrotriya father and who is not related to the performer must be invited and all the rest is mere arthavāda (by way of eulogy). Manu (III. 128) laid down two propositions viz. all food offered as sacrifice to the gods and manes must be given only to a brāhmaṇa who studies the Veda and that whatever is presented to the most worthy brāhmaṇa (among brāhmaṇas studying the Veda) brings in the greatest rewardṣ Then Manu (III. 183) declares that pāṅktipāvana brāhmaṇas are those that sanctify a row of diners among whom sit some who are tainted by (latent) blemishes that make them unfit to be among the dinerṣ Then Manu (III. 184-186) gives examples of pāṅktipāvana brāhmaṇas viz. those who are the foremost among students of all the Vedas or their expository works and who are born in a family of unbroken descent of Vedic students, who are Triṇā-ciketa &c. Hemādri (on śr. pp. 391-395) and Kalpataru (śr. pp. 64-65) quote numerous verses from Yama on pāṅktipāvana.

Manu III. 147 asserts that the best course is to invite a brāhmaṇa who fulfils the conditions laid down in Manu III. 132-146, but adds that if it is not possible to secure such a brāhmaṇa then the next best course ¹²² ('anukalpa') may be followed, viz. the performer may invite his own maternal grandfather, his maternal uncle, sister's son, father-in-law, his teacher of the Veda, daughter's son, son-in-law, a bandhu (such as mother's sister's son), wife's brother or a sagotra, or his pupil. Similar provisions occur in Yāj I. 220, Kūrma (Uttarārdha 21, 20), Varāhapurāṇa 14, 3, Matsya 16. 10-11, Viṣṇupurāṇa III. 15. 2-4 (anukalpesvanantarān). But Manu is careful ¹²³ to point out in a later chapter that one who is able to observe the best course, but observes the second best does not reap other-worldly rewards by his actionṣ Even Ap. Dh. S. ¹²⁴ expressly says that if strangers do not possess the requisite qualifications, then even one's full brother possessed of all the qualifications (as to Vedic learning, good conduct &c.) and pupils may be fed at a śrāddha. Bauḍ Dh. S. also allows even a sapiṇḍa to be feḍ ¹²⁵ Gaut 15. 20 appears to be of the view that even pupils and sagotras may be invited when they are possessed of excellent qualities and strangers with good qualifications are not available. Even in these times very learned brāhmaṇas are unwilling to be fed at a śrāddha, particularly within a few years (three or five) from the death of the person for whose benefit the śrāddha is to be performeḍ Smṛtis attach a certain stigma to the fact of being the recipient of a śrāddha dinner and prāyaścittas are prescribeḍ For example, the Mit. on Yāj. III. 289 quotes several verses of Bhāradvāja, one of which says 'If a brāhmaṇa dines at a pārvaṇa śrāddha he has to perform six prāṇāyāmas (as expiation), if he dines at a śrāddha from the third month after a person's death to one year, he has to undergo a fast; if he dines at a vṛddhiśrāddha, he has to perform three prāṇāyāmas, and a fast for a day and night if he dines at a sapiṇḍana śrāddha.' The Mit. further quotes a verse from Dhaumya which prescribes Cāndrāyaṇa for dining at a śrāddha on the birth of a son or at sīmantonnayana, in a navaśrāddha etc. Vide also Nirnayasindhu III, pp. 467-468 for prāyaścittas on eating śrāddha dinnerṣ The Varāhapurāṇa (139. 12-13) provides that if a brāhmaṇa dies while the food offered to a preta is still in his stomach he dwells for a kalpa in a horrible hell, becomes a rākṣasa and then becomes free from the siṇ

According to Gaut. 15.10 young persons with the requisite qualifications are to be preferred to older ones, while, according to some, young men were to be invited at a śrāddha for one's deceased father and old men for a śrāddha for one's grand-father. On the other hand, Āp. Dh. S. says among brāhmaṇas possessing the same qualifications, the older ones are to be preferred and among those that are old are to be preferred the poor that are anxious to earn money.¹²⁵

Some of the works lay special emphasis on inviting ascetics or yogins at a śrāddha dinner. The Viṣṇu Dh. S states that yogins ¹²⁶ are particularly paṅktipāvana and quotes a stanza as recited by the pitṛs 'May (a descendant) be born in our family who feeds a brāhmaṇa yogin at a śrāddha by which we are ourselves satisfieḍ' The Varāhapurāṇa 14. 50 says that a yogin is superior to 100 brāhmaṇaṣ The Mārkaṇḍeya-purāṇa provides 'a wise man should always feed yogins at a śrāddha since the pitṛs rely for support on Yoga; if a yogin is fed by being seated as the first among thousands of brāhmaṇas he saves the performer and the other diners as a boat saves men in water.' Then it quotes stanzas sung by the pitṛs (29. 32-34) to king Aila. The Saurapurāṇa, after mentioning the qualifica-tions (in 19. 2-3) ⁸⁷⁰ winds up by stating that even one may suffice provided he be a single-minded devotee of Śiva (verse 6) The Matsyapurāṇa (16. 11-12) recommends ‘He who expounds (the meaning of) texts; he who enters upon the discussion of śrauta sacrifices and he who knows the rules about the accents of sāmans is a purifier of paṅktipāvanas; one proficient in the Sāmaveda, a Vedic student, one endowed with knowledge of the Veda or of Brahma —where these are fed in a śrāddha it yields the highest benefit.’¹²⁷ Though in the above passages the greatest emphasis was laid on the possession of Vedic learning by the brāhmaṇas to be fed, one had also to see whether they were men of good character and observers of the rules of proper conduct, as provided by Āśv. Gr. IV. 7. 2 (note 862), Gaut. 15.9 and Manu II. 118 who says ‘a brāhmaṇa¹²⁸ knowing only the sacred Gāyatrī but living a well-regulated life is to be preferred and not one who knows the three Vedas but who is not well-regulated in conduct and who eats anything (even forbidden food) and who is a vendor of everything.’ The Skandapurāṇa VI. 217. 27 recommends that one should make every effort to know the family of the brāhmaṇas, then their character (śīla), then their age and then the facts about whom they marry or to whom they give their daughters in marriage. The Brahmāṇḍa (Upodghāta, chap 15) says that there should be no scrutiny of a brāhmaṇa about whom nothing is known because siddhas (yogins) roam about on the earth in the form of brāhmaṇaṣ But if faults in a brāhmaṇa are easily seen or if one knows his disqualifications on account of one’s dwelling near him, he should not be invited (verses 5-6). The same Purāṇa (Upodghāta 15. 24-26) arranges the orders of preference as follows · first yati (ascetic), then a brāhmaṇa who knows the four Vedas and itihāsa, then one who knows three Vedas, then one who knows two, then one who knows one Veda, then one who is an upādhyāya. Hemādri (on śrāddha p. 443) quotes the Agni- purāṇa¹²⁹ as follows : ‘what is the use of (birth in a) famous family if the man is himself devoid of good conduct? Are not insects found in fragrant flowers?’ Jātūkarṇya says ‘one should not honour even with a word (much less with food &c.) in rites for gods and Manes bad brāhmaṇas void of good conduct, even though they be endowed with learning and be born in a good family.’ This insistence on worth was due to the conception that pitṛs assuming an aerial form enter brāhmaṇas at the time of śrāddha. Vide Brahmāṇḍapurāṇa (Upodghātapāda 11. 49).

These requirements of learning, character and good conduct would naturally make it incumbent on the performer of a śrāddha to inquire into the antecedents, qualities and defects of the brāhmaṇas to be inviteḍ Manu and others lay down several rules about the testing of the brāhmaṇas to be inviteḍ Manu III. 149, Viṣṇu Dh. ¹³⁰ S. 82.1-2, provide ‘at an offering to the gods let a man not enquire into (the qualities of) a brāhmaṇa (when he wants to invite), but at a śrāddha offering to the Manes close inquiry (into qualities) is declared to be proper and just.’ Manu III. 130 says that even if a brāhmaṇa be master of the Veda, one should enquire far (into his ancestry). The Vāyupurāṇa ¹³¹ appears to provide that inquiry into (the qualifications of) brāhmaṇas should not be always undertaken when gifts are to be made, but enquiry is declared (necessary) in the case of rites for gods and Maneṣ The Anuśā-sanaparva provides ¹³² that in rites meant for gods a kṣatriya knowing the rules about gifts should not (closely) inquire into the qualifications of brāhmaṇas, but in rites for the gods and Manes such inquiry is quite proper. Vṛddha-Manu and the Matsya-purāṇa ¹³³ lay down that a brāhmaṇa’s character is to be inquired into at the place where he resides for a long time, his purity by his acts and transactions with other people, his intelligence by discussion with him: with these three one should inquire whether the brāhmaṇa (to be invited) is a worthy persoṇ The Nṛsimhapurāṇa ¹³⁴ forbids close inquiry into the character and learning of one who comes by chance as a guest at the time of śrāddha. That inquiry was allowed as to brāhmaṇas who were invited and not as to those who came by chance uninvited as अतिथिṣ There are no doubt certain passages particularly in the Purāṇas where scrutiny into a brāhmaṇa's qualifications is condemneḍ For example, the Skandapurāṇa quoted by Aparārka (p. 455) and Kalpataru (on śr. p. 102) states 'The Vedic revelation is that śrāddha is to be offered (to a brāhmaṇa) after inquiry (into his learning and character), but straightforward action is better than scrutiny. When one offers śrāddha straightforwardly without inquiry his pitṛs are gratified and also gods'. The Bhaviṣyapurāṇa (q. by Bālambhaṭṭī) states 'it is my view also that one should not test (the qualifications of) brāhmaṇas; one should only consider their caste and not their virtues'. Such passages are explained away as referring to a śrāddha at sacred places or as applicable to gifts or to tithis (vide Hemādri on śrāddha p. 513, and Bālambhaṭṭī on ācāra p. 494) ¹³⁵.

Brāhmaṇas were declared to be apāṅkteya ¹³⁶ (not fit to sit in the row of brāhmaṇa diners or as defiling a row of diners at śrāddha) on various grounds, such as bodily and mental defects and diseases, pursuit of certain avocations, moral lapses, being guilty of crimes, being followers of unorthodox systems, being inhabitants of certain countrieṣ A distinction has to be made between brāhmaṇas who should not be invited and brāhmaṇas that are apāṅkteya or paṅktidūṣaka. For example, one should not ordinarily invite a friend or a sagotra brāhmaṇa even though learned, but these are not apānkteya. The Ap. ¹³⁷ Dh. S. states that one suffering from white leprosy, a bald man, the violator of another man's bed, the son of a brāhmaṇa who was a soldier by profession, the son of (brāhmaṇa who had become like) a śūdra from a brāhmaṇa woman—these defile the company if they are invited at a śrāddha repast. Vaṣ Dh. S. XI 19 also gives a brief list viz. ‘one should avoid naked (ascetics), those suffering from white leprosy, impotent men, blind men, those who have black teeth, those afflicted with black leprosy and those who have deformed nailṣ’ Very long lists of persons unfit to be invited at a śrāddha are given by Gaut. XV. 16–19, Manu III. 150–166, Yaj. I. 222–224, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 82. 3–29, Atri (verses 345–359 and 385–388), Bṛhad-Yama III. 34–38, Bṛhat-Parāśara pp.149–150, Vṛddha-Gautama pp. 580–581, the Vāyu-purāṇa 83.61–70, Anuśāsana-parva 90.6–11, Matsyapurāṇa 16.14–17, Kūrma (II 21. 23–47), Skanda VII. 1.205.58–72, VI. 217.11–20, Varāhapurāṇa 14.4–6, Brahmā-purāṇa 220. 127–135, Brahmāṇḍapurāṇa (Upodghāta 15.39–44 and 19.30–41), Mārkaṇḍeya 28.26–30, Viṣṇupurāṇa (III 15.5–8), Nāradapurāṇa (pūrvārdha 28.11–18 ), Saurapurāṇa (19.7–9) and several other workṣ The list in the Manusmṛti is one of the longest and that is set out here. One should not invite a brāhmaṇa that is (1) a thief, (2) an outcaste, (3) an impotent man, (4) an atheist, (5) one who wears his hair in braids (a student yet learning Veda); (6) one who does not study the Veda, (7) one who is afflicted with a skin disease, (8) a gambler, (9) one officiating as a priest for a multitude of men, (10) a physician, (11) temple priest (who worships images for money), (12) vendor of meat, (13) one who makes his livelihood as shopkeeper, (14 and 15) a paid servant of a village or of a king, (16) one with deformed nails, (17) one whose teeth are black (naturally), (18) one who opposes his guru, (19) one who has forsaken his sacred fire (śrauta or smārta) without a proper cause, (20) a usurer, (21) one suffering from consumption, (22) one who subsists by tending cattle (though not in distress), (23 and 24) a younger brother who marries or kindles sacred fires before his elder brother, (25) one who neglects the five (daily) sacrifices, (26) an enemy of brāhmaṇas or of Veda, (27 and 28) an elder brother who marries or kindles sacred fires after his young brother, (29) one who is a member of a guild or corporation, (30) an actor or singer, (31) one who has broken the vow of student-hood by unchastity, (32) one whose (only or first wife) is a śūdra female, (33) the son of a remarried woman, (34) a squint-eyed or one-eyed man, (35) one in whose house a paramour of his wife resides, (36) one who teaches for hire, (37) one who is taught by a hired teacher, (38) one whose teacher is a śūdra, (39) one who instructs śūdra pupils, (40) one whose speech is harsh and untrue, (41) the son of an adulteress, (42) the son of a widow, (43) one who forsakes his mother, father or teacher without (adequate) cause, (44) one who has contracted an alliance with patitas either through the Veda (i. e. as teacher or pupil) or through marriage, (45) an incendiary, (46) one who undertakes sea-voyages, (47) a bard, (48) an oil-man, (49) a false witness (or forger of documents or counterfeiter of coins), (50) one who has a dispute with his father in a law court, (51) one who induces others to gamble, (52) one who drinks wine, (53) one afflicted with a disease (in punishment for crimes in former lives), (54) one accused of a grave sin, (55) a hypocrite, (56) a vendor of substances used for flavouring food (such as sugar-cane juice or molasses), (57) a manufacturer of bows and arrows, (58) one who is the husband of a woman married before her elder sister, (59) the betrayer of a friend, (60) the keeper of a gambling house, (61) one who learns (the Veda) from his own son, (62) an epileptic man, (63) one who has scrofulous swellings of the glands, (64) one afflicted with white leprosy, (65) an informer, (66) a lunatic, (67) a blind man, (68) a caviller of the Veda, (69) a trainer of elephants, horses, oxen or camels, (70) one subsisting by the practice of astrology, (71) a bird-fancier, (72) one who gives instructions in the use of weapons, (73) one who diverts watercourses, (74) one engaged in obstructing watercourses, (75) one subsisting by teaching or practising architecture, (76) a messenger, (77) one who plants trees for money, (78) a breeder of sporting dogs, (79) a falconer, (80) a defiler of a maiden (or who ascribes falsely fault to a maiden), (81) one given to injuring living beings, (82) one who gains his livelihood from śūdras, (83) one who officiates at a sacrifice on behalf of śūdras, (84) one who does not follow the ordinary rules of conduct (as welcoming a guest &c), (85) one who has no energy for religious acts, (86) one who constantly begs for gifts, (87) one who subsists by agriculture (carried on personally), (88) one who suffers from elephantiasis, (89) one who is condemned by good men, (90) a shepherd, (91) a keeper of buffaloes, (92) the husband of a remarried woman, (93) a carrier of dead bodies (for money)¹³⁸. Manu III. 167 says that a brāhmaṇa who knows the sacred laws should avoid or shun at both (sacrifices to Gods and to Manes) the worst of brāhmaṇas enumerated above whose conduct is reprehensible and who are unworthy of sitting in a row of brāh- manas at a śrāddha repast, Manu III. 170-182 indulge in pointing out how feeding such unworthy brāhmaṇas results in the loss of the gratification of pitṛs and state that the food eaten by such unworthy persons becomes or is to be deemed as equal to foul thingṣ The Kūrmapurāṇa ¹³⁹ forbids inviting at śrāddhas Bauddha ascetics, Nirgranthas (devotees who have withdrawn from the world and wander about naked or as beggars), those that follow the Pañcarātra and Pāśupata doctrines, those that are kāpālikas (devotees of Śiva of the left hand order) and other similar heretical people. The Viṣṇupurāṇa (III. 18. 70 ff) narrates how a king after a bath in a holy place talked with a heretic and had to pass in consequence through the bodies of a dog, a jackal, wolf, vulture, a crow, a crane and peacock and ultimately became freed from the taint by a bath at the ava- bhṛtha in an Aśvamedha sacrifice. The same Purāṇa provides (III. 18 97) that one should avoid talking with or touching heretics, particularly at the time of a religious rite or when one has consecrated for a solemn sacrifice. The Vāyupurāṇa ¹⁴⁰ provides that people who are 'nagna' should not be allowed to see a śrāddha and then defines 'nagna' people as follows: ‘The three Vedas are declared to be a protective covering for all beings and therefore those who foolishly abandon the Vedas are called 'nagna'; those who vainly keep matted hair, those who shave their heads for no purpose, those who are nagna (naked) without any cause, those who engage in certain obser- vances and mutter certain words aimlessly are called nag- naḍī. Just as certain countries were declared unfit for the performance of śrāddhas (vide note 853 above), so certain brāhmaṇas hailing from certain countries were declared in some works as not fit to be invited at a śrāddha.¹⁴¹ For example, the Matsyapurāṇa states that brāhmaṇas that are ungrateful, that stay in Mleccha countries or the countries of Triśanku, Karavīra, Āndhra, Cina, Draviḍa and Konkaṇa should be carefully avoided at the time of śrāddha. Hemādri (on śrāddha p. 505) quotes from the Saurapurāṇa the following: 'Brāhmaṇas hailing from the countries of Aṅga, Vaṅga, Kaliṅga, Saurāṣṭra, (Kāṭhiawār), Gurjara, Ābhīra, Koṅkaṇa, Draviḍa, Dakṣiṇāpatha, Avanti and Magadha should be avoided at śrāddhaṣ It will be noticed that putting the above two passages together, brāhmaṇas from half of modern India would have been ineligible for being invited at śrāddhas if these passages were literally followeḍ This was probably a counsel of perfection prompted by the false pride and prejudices of the authors of those workṣ The Śrāddhaviveka of Rudradhara (pp. 39-41) contains one of the longest lists of persons unfit to be invited at a śrāddha.

The following reason is advanced by the Varāhapurāṇa¹⁴² and others for honouring a guest who comes by chance at the time when a śrāddha rite is in progress: "Yogins wander over the earth assuming different forms that prevent recognition, but doing good to people; therefore a wise man should honour a guest who arrives at the time of the performance of a śrāddha". The Bhaviṣya-purāṇa¹⁴³ similarly says that an atithi (guest) at a śrāddha is one who comes when least thought of and not one who had arrived before the śrāddha rite starteḍ The Mārkaṇḍeya (26. 30) provides that one should not ask such an atithi about his gotra or caraṇa or his Vedic study nor should one consider whether he has a fine appearance. Hemādri (on śrāddha pp. 430-433) quotes verses from the Śivadharmottara, Visnudharmottara and Vāyu (71.74-75) Purāṇas that gods, siddhas and yogins wander over the earth in the form of brāhmaṇa tithis in order to favour people and to see how śrāddhas are being performeḍ About the definition of an atithi and the necessity and mode of honouring a guest in general, vide H. of Dh. vol. II. pp. 749-756.

Hemādri (Śrāddhakāṇḍa, pp. 380-385) holds an interest- ing discussion as to whether a performer of śrāddha belonging to one recension of a Veda must restrict himself to inviting brāhmaṇas that are students of the same recension of the Veda or whether he can invite any brāhmaṇa that may have studied any of the three Vedaṣ Some people relying on a maxim ('as in the case of a bride so in the case of an offering') invite only brāhmaṇas of their own śākhā possessed of the qualifications above set forth. Hemādri replies that this is a wrong notion, relies on Āp. Dh. S. II. 6. 15. 9 'one should feed ¹⁴⁴ in all (religious) acts brāhmaṇas that are pure (in their conduct) and that have studied the Veda' and asserts that no smṛti, Itihāsa, Purāṇa, Gṛhyasūtra nor Kalpasūtra contains the restriction of inviting only brāhmaṇas of the performer's own śākhā. He further says that in such texts as 'triṇāciketas- trimadhuh' (quoted in note 862a above) the rule laid down is to invite brāhmaṇas that have studied different śākhās and Vedaṣ He rejects the idea about any restriction as to selecting a bridegroom of the same śākhā as the bride's father and remarks that if some people are not prepared to give their daughters in marriage to young men belonging to other śākhās, that is due to ignorance about the families and is also due to pride and vanity. He winds up by saying that in Āryāvarta countries it is found on all sides that marriage connections are entered into with persons studying different śākhās but living in the same district, (such connections) not being con- demned, while persons who study the same śākhā of the Veda but do not know each other do not enter into marital connec- tionṣ ¹⁴⁵ As a contrast to this commonsense view it should be

ing (of food) is eaten by a yati that knows the truth about prakṛti (primordial matter) and the guṇas (sattva, rajas and tamas) reaps the reward (merit) of feeding a thousand (other brāhmaṇas). Therefore one should feed in offerings to gods and manes an excellent yogin who is intent on true knowledge of God and others only if such a one is not available.' Similar verses about ascetics and yogins occur in Varāhapurāṇa 14. 50, Skanda (VI. 217. 7 ff) and Vāyupurāṇa¹⁴⁶ chap. 71. 65-73, chap. 76. 28 &c. Bṛhaspati provides¹⁴⁷ a special rule that, if a person cannot afford to feed at a śrāddha more than one brāhmaṇa, then he should feed one who has studied the Sāmaveda, since in him all the three viz. Ṛks, the Yajus and Sāmans co-exist, that the father is pleased by Ṛks (i. e. by the feeding of a brāhmaṇa who has studied the Ṛgveda), the grand-father by Yajus, the great-grand-father by a Sāman and a chandoga (a chanter of the whole of Sāmaveda) is superior. A verse of Śātātapa is¹⁴⁸ quoted to the effect that if a student of the Atharvaveda is fed in a rite for the gods or manes, that yields endless and inexhaustible rewardṣ

Some of the smṛtis were very strict in laying down the qualifications of brāhmaṇas to be invited at a śrāddha. Auśa-nasa (chap. 4) asserts: 'that brāhmaṇa¹⁴⁹ is called durbrāh-maṇa and should never be invited at a śrāddha in whose family Veda study and Vedī (i. e. the performance of Śrauta sacri-fices) have been stopped for three generations'. The same author ¹⁵⁰ further says that six persons are merely *brāhmaṇa*s by birth or caste alone) viz. one who is hired by a śūdra or a king as a servant, who has a śūdra woman as his wife, who is a village priest and who subsists by killing (animals) or by catching theṃ So early as the Mahābhāṣya ¹⁵¹ it was stated that austerities (leading a life of restraint and strict observances), Vedic learning and birth (from brāhmaṇa parents) are the causes of (a man being called) a brāhmaṇa and that he who is devoid of the first two is a mere brāhmaṇa by caste (but not a real brāhmaṇa). It is curious to note that Yama stated that, if *brāhmaṇa*s that do not declare (or point out) the auspicious nakṣatra or tithi or day or muhūrta and other auspicious matters, eat (śrāddha) food it becomes inexhaustible.

But the requisite qualifications were so exacting that it must have been found almost impossible to secure for a śrāddha *brāhmaṇa*s altogether free from any of the blemishes set out above from Manu. Gautama (15 15-18) contains long lists ¹⁵² of over 50 kinds of *brāhmaṇa*s that were not to be invited at a śrāddha dinner or at a sacrifice for gods, but Gaut. adds that according to some only those beginning with 'durvāla' (Gaut. in 15. 18) were to be shunned at a śrāddha (but could be invited at a sacrifice for the gods). The persons so to be shunned, according to some who flourished before Gautama (i. e at least before 600 B C) are, a bald man, a man who has deformed nails or has black teeth (naturally), one suffering from white IV] leprosy, the son of a re-married woman, a gambler, one who neglects japa (the recitation of Vedic mantras), a servant of the king, one who uses false weights and measures, one whose (only) wife is a śūdra female, one who does not perform the daily five sacrifices, one who suffers from a virulent skin disease, a usurer, one who lives by trade or by handicrafts, one who makes his living by (manufacturing) bows (and arrows) or by playing on musical instruments or by keeping time (when another is singing), or by dancing or singing. Vaṣ quotes a verse ¹⁵³ as follows: If a brāhmaṇa knowing the Vedas is afflicted with physical defects which (ordinarily) exclude a person from a row of diners, Yama declares that he is irreproachable and that he does sanctify the row of dinerṣ But it must be said that even in modern times emphasis is laid on inviting learned and well-conducted brāhmaṇas for śrāddha. The idea (expressed by Manu III, 189 and the Padmapurāṇa) persists that the pitrs enter into and hover round the invited brāhmaṇas and that the latter are to be looked upon as representing the pitṛṣ¹⁵⁴ The Garuḍapurāṇa states that Yama allows the departed souls and the pitṛs to visit the world of men at the time of śrāddha from the nether regionṣ

The Viṣṇu Dh. S. (79. 19-21) prescribes that the performer should avoid wrath, should not shed tears and should not do things in a hurry. The Varāhapurāṇa ¹⁵⁵ provides that the performer should not employ twigs for brushing the teeth (but should rinse his mouth twelve times with water), should remain chaste and pure. Āp. Dh. S prescribes ¹⁵⁶ that the performer should not eat food from the commencement (from the time he goes out to invite) up to the end of the śrāddha rite. The Kūrma (uttarārdha 22. 8) states that if a person first invites a brāhmaṇa and then foolishly invites another (passing over the first) then he becomes a greater sinner (than the brāhmaṇa who after accepting one invitation promises to dine at another śrāddha) and is born as a worm in human faeceṣ The Bhaviṣyapurāṇa ¹⁵⁷ provides that honouring gods, pitṛs and men and feeding (brāhmaṇas) should not be done without wearing an upper garment; otherwise the rite will bear no fruit.

About the number of brāhmaṇas to be invited at a śrāddha there were several options and several viewṣ The Aśv. Gr. S. states ¹⁵⁸ that at the Pārvaṇa—śrāddha (performed on a parvan day i. e. on Amāvāsyā), the Ābhyudayika śrāddha, the Ekoddiṣṭa or Kāmya, the larger the number of brāhmaṇas the greater is the reward, that in no case should a person invite only one brāhmaṇa at a śrāddha meant for all pitṛs or he may optionally invite one, two or three brāhmaṇas for each of the three paternal ancestorṣ The Sāṇ Gr. (IV. 1,2) and Kauśītakī Gr III. 14. 1–2 prescribe that one should ¹⁵⁹ invite an uneven number of brāhmaṇas, at least three, to sit down as (representing the) fatherṣ Gaut. requires ¹⁶⁰ ‘He shall feed an uneven number of brāhmaṇas, at least nine or as many as he is able (to feed) and that they should be learned in the Veda and endowed with polished speech, good appearance, mature age and good character*. If five were invited two would be for gods and three for pitṛs; if seven, then four for gods and three for pitṛṣ Vaṣ XI, 27 (= Manu III, 125 = Bauḍ Dh. S. II, 8, 29), Yaj. I. 228, Matsyapurāṇa 17. 13-14, Viṣṇupurāṇa III, 15.14 provide that one must feed two brāhmaṇas at the rite for the gods and three for the manes or one only for each of the two purposes and even a rich man should not go in for a large company. The Padma-purāṇa (Sṛṣṭi 9.98 and 141) says the same thing. So the number of brāhmaṇas to be invited did not depend so much upon the means of the inviter, but upon the point whether the inviter would be able to honour them all properly and with ease. The idea was that at the same time when śrāddha was to be performed two brāhmaṇas should be fed for gods and three for the pitṛṣ When only one brāhmaṇa could be invited or was available, Vaṣ (XI. 30-31) provides that portions of the several foods cooked should be put in a vessel and should be placed at the place where Vaiśvadevika brāhmaṇa would have been seated, then served in a plate and the viśve devāḥ be invoked and should be contemplated as present and then the food should be thrown into the fire or offered to a Vedic student (as alms) and then śrāddha rite should be continueḍ Śankha ¹⁶¹ 14.10 provides a similar rule. The result is that if a man can afford to invite only one brāhmaṇa or can secure one only, then that brāhmaṇa is meant for the rite in honour of pitṛs and the offering for the gods is to be cast into fire. Bauḍ Dh. S. II, 8,30, Manu III, 126, Vaṣ XI, 28, Kūrma (uttarārdha 22 28) contain the same verse which emphatically states ‘A large company destroys these five desiderata, viz the respectful treatment (of those invited), the securing of a proper place (such as one sloping to the south) and time, purity and (the choice of) meritorious brāhmaṇas; therefore one should not desire a large company⁹⁰⁷. The Kūrmapurāṇa (uttarārdha 22.32 ) insists that an atithi must be fed at a śrāddha or other-wise the śrāddha is not praiseworthy. Though these ancient works insisted upon the avoidance of large preparations and expenses for śrāddhas in honour of a deceased person, there were other smṛtis that favoured lavish distribution of wealth in śrāddhaṣ For example, Bṛhaspati lays down: '(An heir) should lay aside half of the wealth that comes to him (by inheritance) for the benefit of the deceased owner and should expend it in the monthly, six-monthly and yearly śrāddhaṣ' The Dāyabhāga XI. 12 approves⁹⁰⁸ of this and also quotes Āp. Dh. S. II. 6. 13.3 'On the failure of a sapinda the Veda takes the wealth of the deceased, on failure of the teacher, the pupil takes it and having inheri-ted it he should employ it in the performance of works of charity for the benefit of the deceased' (or he himself may enjoy it). These passages show to what lengths the cult of benefit to the soul of the deceased was carried in India by certain writerṣ More practical authors such as Hāradatta did not relish these extreme viewṣ In several purāṇas such as the Vāyu 908* and Viṣṇu there are express directions that when a śrāddha is performed at Gayā, it should be on a profuse scale and no stinginess⁹⁰⁹ (lit. cheating in money matters) in spending wealth should be shown there; otherwise the performer would not reap the benefit of the performance of śrāddha at that holy place. The Padmapurāṇa appears to inculcate profuse expenditure of wealth in all śrāddhaṣ The Vāyupurāṇa ¹⁶⁶ (32. 26-28) further says that the brāhmaṇas of Gayā are super- men, that when they are gratified (at a śrāddha) the gods together with pitṛs become gratified, that no question should be raised about the family, the character, the learning and the austerities (of the Gayā brāhmaṇas), that by honouring them a man attains liberation, that a man after honouring the brāhmaṇas should proceed according to his resources and strength to the performance of śrāddha, thereby he secures all heavenly desires and obtains the means of Mokṣa. The Skanda- purāṇa goes so far as to say that Gayā brāhmaṇas even if they are depraved in their conduct and are backward deserve to be invited at śrāddha and are superior to brāhmaṇas who have mastered the Veda and Vedāṅgaṣ The Nirṇayasindhu (III. p. 401) notes that, according to the Tristhalisetu of his grandfather, this provision holds good only in the case of the śrāddha at the Akṣayya Vaṭa in Gayā and nowhere else. In modern times the brāhmaṇas at Gayā used to require the performer of śrāddha while he was in the sacred Phalgu river to make a declaration about his wealth and demanded fees accordingly, thereby carrying to the letter the words of the Vāyupurāṇa. Many people returned from Gayā thoroughly dis- illusioned and disgusted with the conduct of the brāhmaṇas at Gayā. In the Varāhapurāṇa ¹⁶⁷ it is said that two verses were sung by the pitṛs viz 'Would such a blessed and intelli- gent man be born in our family who will offer piṇḍas (i. e. śrāddha) to us without being stingy about wealth and who would bestow on brāhmaṇas with reference to us (i. e. for our benefit) jewels, clothes, land, costly vehicles and all other kinds of wealth including water, when he has riches enough?' Here lavish expenditure on all śrāddhas (not only at Gayā- śrāddha) appears to be strongly recommendeḍ Devala prc- vides that on the days of śrauta sacrifices, of the celebration of charitable acts, of śrāddhas on the anniversary of death or on amāvāsyā, on lucky occasions (ṛddhi), on Aṣṭakā days, one should never give a frugal or poor dinner to ¹⁶⁸ the worthy brāhmaṇas invited for dinner.

If no brāhmaṇa is available, then the Śrāddhatattvaka, Śrāddhatattva and other digests say that effigies of brāhmaṇas made with seven or nine darbhas (except in the case of a per- former following the Sāmaveda who is not restricted as to the number of darbhas) should be got ready and śrāddha should be performed and afterwards the fee and other materials may be given later on to other brāhmaṇas ¹⁶⁹.

Rules were laid from very ancient times about the method of inviting brāhmaṇaṣ The Āp. Dh. S. states ¹⁷⁰ that the performer should make a request to the brāhmaṇas on the previous day, that on the day of the śrāddha he should request a second time (saying 'today is the śrāddha day') and then he should address them a third time (with the words 'food is ready, come'). Haradatta on the first of the three sūtras explains that the request should be 'tomorrow there is a śrāddha, you should do me the favour of being in the place of the 'Aharaṇiya fire' i. e. you should partake of the food that will be prepareḍ Manu III. 187 also says that the invitation should be on the previous day or on the day of the śrāddha. itself. The Matsyapurāṇa¹⁷¹ and Padma (Sṛṣṭi-khaṇḍa 9.85-88) provide that the person intending to perform a śrāddha should in an humble manner invite the brāhmaṇas on the previous day or (in the morning of) the day of śrāddha, that he should touch the right knee (of the brāhmaṇa to be invited) with the words 'you are given this invitation by me' and repeat in their hearing the following observance 'you should be free from anger, should be intent on purity (of body and mind) and should abstain from sexual intercourse and I, the performer of śrāddha, shall also act in the same way and that the pitṛs in an aerial form wait upon the invited brāhmaṇaṣ' The Bṛhan-nāradīya-purāṇa states that the invitation should be in the words 'O best men! You should do me a favour and accept the invitation for śrāddha.' It is noteworthy that the Prajāpati-smṛti (63) prescribes that one should invite brāhmaṇas for a śrāddha or sacrifice for gods in the evening of the previous day after uttering the verse 'akrodhanaiḥ &c.¹⁷² The Skandapurāṇa VI. 217. 37 says that the performer should address the brāhmaṇa as follows: 'my father (is or will enter) into this your body and so will my grand-father; let him (the grand-father) come with his father and you should strictly observe the vrata' (the rules). The invitation to the brāhmaṇas representing pitṛs is to be given with the sacred thread in the prācīnāvīta form and to those for Vaiśvadevika in the yajñopavīta forṃ On the question whether the Vaiśvadevika brāhmaṇas were to be invited first or the brāhmaṇas for pitṛs were to be invited first there is a conflict among smṛtis and the medieval digests propose an option (vide Hemādri on śrāddha pp. 1154-1157). Manu III. 205 appears to lay down that the daiva brāhmaṇa should be invited first (daivādyantam tad-iheta). Yama quoted by several digests ¹⁷³ says that the performer should request in the evening of the previous day brāhmaṇas with the words ‘You should all be free from exertions and should avoid passion and anger for the śrāddha in my house which is to be performed tomorrow,’ that the brāhmaṇas should reply ‘let it be so if the night passes happily and without any mishap to uṣ’ The digests (e. g. Śrāddhakriyākaumudī p. 81, Śrāddhattattva p 194 and Nirṇayasindhu III. p. 804) say that the verse ‘sarvāyāsa &c’ may be repeated when the invitation is given on the day previous to the day of śrāddha and the verse ‘akrodhanaiḥ’ when the invitation is given on the morning of the śrāddha day. The words of invitation differ according to different authoritieṣ For example, according to the Mit. on Yāj I. 225 the words are ‘śrāddhe kṣaṇaḥ kriyatāṃ’ Vide Śr. Pr. p. 106 also. Manu III. 187 and 191 show that the words ‘nimantraṇa’ and ‘āmantraṇa’ are used as synonymṣ In the Śrāddhasūtra ¹⁷⁴ of Kātyāyana the word ‘āmantraṇa’ is useḍ But Pāṇini ¹⁷⁵ (III. 3. 161) apparently makes a difference between the meanings of the two words and the Mahābhāṣya explains that invitation is called ‘nimantraṇa’ which if rejected (without proper cause) involves a fault or sin, while that invitation which one is free to reject (without incurring blame) is called ‘āmantraṇa.’ Therefore, it must be held that the few writers such as Kātyāyana who employ āmantraṇa use it in a secondary sense. The invitation should be given by a performer himself or by his son, brother or a pupil or a brāhmaṇa, but it should not be given through a person of another varṇa ¹⁷⁶ or a woman or a child or person belonging to another gotra nor from a distance (Prajāpati 64). Pracetas provides that a brāhmaṇa performer of śrāddha when giving an invitation should touch the right knee, a kṣatriya inviter the left knee of the invitee, a Vaiśya inviter should hold both feet of the invitee and a śūdra should prostrate himself at the feet of the invitee (vide Śr. Pr. p. 106 and S. K. L. p. 47). The Mārkaṇḍeya (28, 35) states an exception that if, when a śrāddha rite is going on, brāhmaṇas or Vedic students should make them pleased by falling at their feet and feed them (i. e. no formal invitation is necessary in these cases). Vide Viṣṇupurāṇa III. 15. 12 for feeding uninvited asceticṣ It is provided by Bhṛgu quoted by Hemādri that the brāhmaṇas on accepting the invitation should pronounce the finely-worded and comprehensive Vedic benediction quoted below.¹⁷⁷

Uśanas ¹⁷⁷ provides that the performer should wash the floor of his house with water, cowdung it and cleanse the vessels on the day previous to the śrāddha and then give an invitation to the brāhmaṇas with the words ‘tomorrow I am going to perform śrāddha’. The Varāhapurāṇa and the Kūrma also provide for this and for the washing of the clotheṣ Manu III. 206 also requires that the spot where śrāddha is to be performed should be clean, secluded, cowdunged and should slope to the south.

The Śrāddhasūtra of Kātyāyana ¹⁷⁸ prescribes that a brāh- mana who has been invited (to a śrāddha dinner) by a faultless performer should not refuse the invitation nor should he, after being invited (and having accepted the invitation), accept a gift of even (uncooked) food from another persoṇ Manu III 190 and Kūrmapurāṇa provide that if a brāhmaṇa after receiving an invitation for a sacrifice to gods or manes according to śāstra after having accepted it violates the appoint-ment, he incurs sin and becomes a hog ¹⁷⁹ (in his next birth). This does not apply where he is unable to go on account of illness or other valid reasoṇ

The smṛtis laid down some strict and elaborate rules which were to be observed by the brāhmaṇas invited for śrāddha and by the performer himself. Many of the rules are applicable to both. Gaut prescribes ¹⁸⁰ that the brāhmaṇa who has partaken of śrāddha dinner should remain chaste (i. e. shun sexual inter-course) that whole day, and if he has intercourse with a wife of the śūdra caste he thereby makes his own pitṛs stay in the ordure of that wife. Vas XI. 37 makes this rule applicable both to the performer and the invited brāhmaṇa and as regards wives of all varṇaṣ Manu III. 188 provides that the brāhmaṇa invited to dine at a sacrifice in honour of pitṛs and the per-former of the śrāddha should remain controlled (i. e. chaste and free from anger and passion) and should not study the Veda (except japa). Yaj. I. 225 (latter half) briefly puts the matter by saying 'they should be controlled as to their bodies, speech and thoughts'. The Matsyapurāṇa ¹⁸¹ proscribes that both the performer of śrāddha and the brāhmaṇa invited to dine at it should avoid dining again (after the śrāddha dinner), journey, going in a conveyance, exertions, sexual intercourse, study of the Veda, quarrel, and sleeping by day. Similar rules to observe continence are laid down for both on the day of śrāddha if invitation be given on the morning of the day of IV śrāddha and also on the previous day if invitation be given on the day previous to the śrāddha day. Vide Viṣṇu Dh. S. 69. 2–4. The Mit. on Yaj. I 79 appears to strike a dissenting note about sexual intercourse with one’s wife during the days from the 5th to the 16th; while most other medieval writers such as Hemādri (Śr. pp. 1036-7) and Śr. P. p. 111 are opposed to this view. The Śrāddhasūtra ¹⁸² of Kātyāyana provides that the performer should, from the time of giving invitation to the time when the brāhmaṇas sip water (i. e. perform ācamana after śrāddha dinner), remain pure, free from anger, hurry, negligence, should speak the truth and should shun a journey, sexual intercourse, hard work and study of the Veda and control speech (should remain mostly silent) and the brāhmaṇas invited should observe the same rules Auśanasa (Jīv. vol I pp. 526-527) contains verses very similar in import to Kātyāyana. The Brahmapurāṇa (220. 106-108), Mārkaṇḍeya (28. 31-33) and Anuśāsana 125.24 have identical verses ¹⁸³ and Vāyu 79. 60-61 are very similar in import. Laghu-Śaṅkha 29, Laghu-Hārīta 75 and Likhita 60 have the same verse requiring the invited brāhmaṇas to avoid eight matters, viz. dining again, journey, carrying loads, Vedic study, sexual intercourse, making gifts, accepting gifts, performing homa, while Prajāpati 92 substi-tutes the brushing of the teeth (with a twig), tāmbula, bath after applying oil to the body, and fast for the first four of the above eight The Anuśāsanaparva (90. 12-13) and Padma (Pātālakhaṇḍa 101. 94-95) also contain a list of actions that should be avoided Briefly put, the following were the obser-vances for both inviter and invitee, viz avoidance of sexual intercourse, dining again, falsehood, hurry, Vedic study, heavy work, gambling, carrying burdens, giving gifts and acceptance of gifts, theft, journey, sleep by day, quarrels; the performer alone was to abstain from eating tāmbula, shaving, applying oil to the body, brushing the teeth with a twig; while the brāh- mana invited was (alone) to observe the following, viz. not absenting oneself after accepting an invitation, making no delay when called for dinner (vide Śrāddhakalika folio 4b and 5a and Pitṛ-bhakti on śrāddha ¹⁸⁴).

Elaborate provisions are made from ancient times about the substances and utensils proper for being used at śrāddha and about those that should not be used thereiṇ Ap. Dh. ¹⁸⁵ S. remarks: the materials in śrāddha are sesamum, māṣa, rice, yavas (barley), water, roots and fruits; but the pitṛs are extremely gratified by food that is mixed with clarified butter and for a very long time; so also they are gratified by wealth that is obtained lawfully and is bestowed on worthy persons'. Manu III. 267 (= Vāyu 83. 3) is to the same effect as Ap. Dh. S. Yāj. I. 258 is content to say that food which is fit to be offered in sacrifices (havisya) should be serveḍ Manu III. 257 explains that food eaten by hermits in the forest, (cow's) milk, soma juice, meat that is not prepared with spices (or that is free from a bad smell), rock salt are by their very nature havis (sacrificial food). According to Gaut. 27. 11 the sacrificial food (havis) comprises boiled rice, food obtained by begging, ground barley (after being baked or fried), grain separated from husk, barley gruel, vegetables, milk, curds, clarified butter, roots, fruits and water. ¹⁸⁶ Other smṛtis and digests very much elaborated these brief indications in the early workṣ The three kinds of wealth (viz. śukla, śabala and kṛṣṇa) and the several lawful or uncondemned means of acquiring wealth have been described already in H. of Dh. vol. II. pp 130 ff. The Mārkaṇḍeya (29. 14-15) condemns the use in śrāddhas of wealth that is obtained by taking bribes or from a patita (one guilty of a grave sin), that springs from bride-price or that is declared to be unlawful or is obtained by saying to another 'give me for the sake of a śrāddha to be offered to my father' (q. by Siṇ O. on śrāddha p. 412). The Skandapurāṇa emphasizes that at a śrāddha purity (śuddhi) must be specially secured in seven matters viz. the body (of the performer), the materials, the wife, the place (where śrāddha is to be performed), the mind, the mantras and brāhmaṇaṣ¹⁸⁷ Manu III 235 (=Vaṣ 11.35) states: three are the sanctifying things in a śrāddha, viz. a daughter's son, a Nepal blanket and sesamum grains and three are commended in śrāddha viz. cleanliness, freedom from anger and absence of hurry.¹⁸⁷ Pracetas mentions several kinds of corn that are commended as food in śrāddha. Manu III, 255 summarises that in śrāddha the riches (i. e. the most important matters) are afternoon, darbhas, proper cleansing of the place (or house) for śrāddha, sesame, generous expense (on food &c.), seasoning food, eminent brāhmaṇaṣ

The Mārkaṇḍeya-purāṇa says that several kinds of corn- yielding plants (some due to tillage in villages and some growing wild) were produced by Brahmā when he milked the earth for famished people, while Brahmavaivarta (q. by Hemādri on śrāddha p. 537) affirms that when a few particles fell down on the earth while Indra drank Soma, from them arose such corn as śyāmāka, wheat, yava, mudga and red paddy and as they were produced from soma they were like nectar to the pitṛs and food prepared from these should be offered to pitṛṣ The Mārkaṇḍeya speaks of seven kinds of grāmya corn and seven kinds of wild (āraṇya) corṇ Prajāpati 119 recommends the use of eight kinds of corn, viz. nivāra, māsa, mudga, wheat, paddy, yava, grain and sesamuṃ The Matsya (q by Hemādri on śrāddha p. 538) narrates that when the Sun drank nectar some drops fell down from which arose the several kinds of paddy, mudga, sugarcane and that therefore sugar is sacred and may be employed in sacrifices to gods and maneṣ The Mārkaṇḍeya ²³⁰ mentions several kinds of corn that may be employed for śrāddha fooḍ The Brahma-purāṇa 220. 154-155, Vāyu 82. 3, Viṣṇupurāṇa III. 16. 5-6, Viṣṇu, Dh. S, ²³¹ Brahmāṇḍa II. 7. 143-152 and III 14. contain similar lists of different kinds of corn that may be used in śrāddhaṣ The Vāyupurāṇa (80. 42-48) mentions various desirable eatables prepared from corn of various kinds, sugar and clarified butter and milk.²³²

Certain kinds of corn and cereals were forbiddeṇ For example, the Matsya-purāṇa and Padma (Sṛṣṭikhaṇḍa, chap. 9 62-66) ²³³ declare that masūra, linseed, niṣpāva, rājamāṣa, kusumbhika, kodrava, udāra, gram, kapittha, madhūka and linseed are forbiddeṇ Viṣṇu Dh S. 79. 18 provides that the performer should avoid the bean called rājamāṣa, masūra, stale food and salt manufactured from seawater. The Sat-triṃśanmata ²³⁴ forbids the use in śrāddha of all kinds of cereals covered with dark husk except sesamum, mudga and māṣa. From considerations of space this matter cannot be pursued further. The Mit. on Yaj. I 240 puts together a long list of allowed and of condemned kinds of grains and other articleṣ

What milk should be ordinarily partaken of and what should be avoided has been dealt with in H. of Dh. vol. II pp. 782-783. A few words are added here. Manu III 271 and Yaj. I. 258 provide that if cow's milk or rice cooked therein (called pāyasa) is offered in śrāddha the pitṛs are satisfied for one year. Vāyu 78. 17, Brahma ¹⁹³ 220 169, Mārkaṇḍeya 32 17–19, Viṣṇupurāṇa III.16.11 forbid the use in a śrāddha of the milk of a she-buffalo, of a camarī or female deer, of sheep or ewes, of she camels, of human females and of all animals with one hoof and the use of the curds and clarified butter prepared from such milk. But ghee prepared from buffalo milk was allowed by Sumantu and Devala (q. by Hemādri on śrāddha p. 572 ).

The Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa ¹⁹⁴ (29.15–17 ), Vāyu (78.16) and Viṣṇupurāṇa (III 16 10) lay down that the water to be employed in śrāddha must not have a bad smell, must not be foamy, or taken from a puddle or a small reservoir which cannot slake the thirst of a cow, must not have been brought overnight, must not be taken from a reservoir not dedicated to all or from a trough or the like meant for beastṣ

Several rules are laid down about the fruits, roots and vegetables recommended or condemned for use in śrāddha. For example, the Brahma-purāṇa (220.156-158 ) enumerates several kinds of fruits such as mangoes, bilva, pomegranate, cocoanut, dates, grapes, as fit to be given in śrāddha. Vide Śaṅkha 14 22–23 also. Vāyu (78 11–15) states¹⁹⁵ that garlic, leeks and onions, other things that are of bad odour or taste and all exudation from trees not permitted by the Veda and sa gathered from saltish earth, should be avoided in śrāddha. The Visṇudharmasūtra ¹⁹⁶ (79.17) contains a long list of fruits bulbs and vegetables that were not to be employed in śrāddha. The Rāmāyaṇa states ¹⁹⁸ that Rāma when an exile in the Daṇḍaka forest gratified his pitṛs by offering the fruits of iṅguda, badara, and bilva trees and generalises that deities are offered that food which is partaken of by a person (who is a devotee of that deity). From considerations of space detailed references to the smṛtis and purāṇas are passed over. The Smṛtyarthasāra pp. 52-53, Śrāddhaviveka (pp. 43-47) of Rudradhara and other digests collect in one place the foods, vegetables, fruits and roots that are allowed to be offered in śrāddha and that are condemned in śrāddha. Manufactured salt was forbidden, but natural salt from a lake (called saindhava) was alloweḍ Salt was not to be served directly (as Visṇudharmasūtra 79. 12 says) but when put in while cooking vegetables it was not prohibiteḍ There was a difference of opinion about the employment of asafoetida (vide Hemādri on Śrāddha p. 565). The Viṣṇudharmasūtra (79. 5–6) provides that flowers having a strong (or nasty) odour or no odour at all, the blossoms of thorny plants and red flowers should not be given, but one may give white and sweet-smelling flowers even though they are taken from thorny plants and flowers though red in colour may be taken from aquatic plantṣ Śankha (14. 15-16) is to the same effect (q. by Hemādri p 684). Vāyu (75. 33–35) is to the same effect and adds that the flowers called Japā, Bhāṇḍī, Rūpikā (of arka plant), Kurantaka should be avoided in śrāddha. The Brahmapurāṇa (220. 162-165) specifies the several kinds of flowers that may be offered in śrāddha such as jātī, campaka, mallikā, mango blossom, tulasī, tagara, ketakī and various kinds of lotuses (white, blue and red &c.). The Smṛtyarthasāra includes tulasī among things to be avoided in śrāddha. The Sṃ C. notes this and remarks that it is not clear on what this dictum prohibiting tulasi is based ¹⁹⁸.

Kusās are required in śrāddha, Vide H. of Dh. vol. II. p. 657 for general remarks on kusāṣ A few words may be added here. The Śat. Br. VII, 2, 3, 2 states that the waters that loathed Vṛtra went out to waterless deserts and became bushes of darbhas ¹⁹⁹. Similarly, Āśv. Gr. III. 2,2 summarizes a Brāhmaṇa text stating that darbhas are the essence of waters and herbs (apām vā esa osadhinām raso yad-darbhaḥ). Prajāpati (verse 98) ¹⁹⁹ provides that darbhas should be gathered from a pure spot in the morning by a brāhmaṇa, should have mantras repeated over them, should be greenish in colour, should be as long as a cow’s ear and then they are holy. The Gobhila gr. (I. 5. 16–17) states ‘the barhis consists of kuśa grass cut off at the points at which the blades diverge from the main stalk and that the blades should be cut off near the roots at the rites meant for the Fathers’. Daksa (II. 33 and 35) provides that the second part of the day (divided into eight parts) is the proper time for collecting fuelsticks, flowers and kuśaṣ The Gobhilasmṛti (I 20-21) says ²⁰⁰ that the darbhas used in sacrifices are greenish, those to be used in Pākayajñas should be yellowish, those in rites for the pitṛs must be taken out from the roots and those that are to be used in Vaiśvadeva should be dark-pale, and that H. D. 53 greenish darbhas together with ends uncut, that are smooth and well nourished, one aratni in length and touched with that part of the hand called pitṛtīrtha are pure. The Padmapurāṇa (Sṛṣṭikhaṇḍa 11,92) and Skanda VII,1, 205.16 state that kuśas and black sesamum spring from the body of Viṣṇu and the Viṣṇudharmottara I, 139,12 says that tilas and darbhas sprang from the perspiration and hair of Viṣṇu in the Boar incarna- tioṇ The Matsya (22,89) says the same.

The Garuda ²⁰¹ (Pretakhaṇḍa 2,21-22) states that all the three gods dwell in kuśa grass viz. Brahmā at its root, Viṣṇu in the middle and Śankara at the end and that brāhmaṇas, mantras, kuśas, fire, tulasī leaf—these do not become nirmālya (stale and so unfit to be used again) even when the same are employed again and agaiṇ But an exception is made by Gobhila ²⁰² that those darbhas which are spread on the ground for placing piṇḍas on them or that are used in tarpaṇa and those that are held in the hand while a man is answering the calls of nature should be given up (and not used again). The Viṣṇu Dh. S. 79,2 and Vāyu 75,41 provide that if kuśas are not avail- able, kāśa grass or Dūrvā may be substituteḍ The Skanda- purāṇa VII (Prabhāsakhaṇḍa) part 1,206.17 says that straight darbhas are used in giving gifts, at baths, in japa, homa, dinner and worship of gods, but they are double-folded when used in rites for pitṛṣ The Skanda VII, 1 205,16 provides that the top of darbhas is for divine rites, while darbha with the root and tip is meant for paitṛka riteṣ This is based on the Sat. Br II 4, 2,17 which states that the top of the darbha belongs to gods, the middle to men and the root part to the fatherṣ

Great importance was attached to the use of tila (sesamum) in śrāddha. The Jaiminigṛhya II,1 states that the whole house should have sesamum grains scattered about in it. Baud Dh. S II 8,8 provides that when the invited brāhmaṇas come they should be given water mixed with sesame. The Bauḍ gr. II, 11,64 provides that sesamum grains are holy in śrāddha for making gifts of them or as part of food or for being mixed in IV] water. The Prajāpatismṛti speaks ²⁰³ of four kinds of tilas viz. white, black, very black and jartilas and states that each succeeding one gives greater gratification to the pitṛs than each preceding one. The Tai. S. V, 4.3.2 refers to jartilas and Jai. X, 8.7 holds a discussion thereoṇ The Nāradapurāṇa (pūrvārdha 28.26) ²⁰⁴ provides that the performer of śrāddha should scatter tilas in the midst of the brāhmaṇas invited and at the doors with the mantra ‘apahatā’ (may the asuras and evil spirits that sit on the altar be struck and run away). Yaj. I, 234 also recommends this mantra (which is Vaj. S. II, 29). The Kūrma- purāṇa (II. 22.18) states that sesame should be scattered all round and a goat should be tied near the spot, since śrāddha polluted by asuras becomes purified by sesame and a goat. The Viṣṇupurāṇa (III, 16.14) prescribes that by tilas scattered on the ground one should ward off evil spirits (Yātudhāna). The Garuḍapurāṇa²⁰⁵ (Pretakhaṇḍa 2.16) makes Śrīkṛṣṇa say ‘tilas have sprung from the perspiration on my body and are holy; asuras, dānavas and daityas run away on account of tilaṣ’ The Anusāsana-parva (90.22) says that yātudhānas and goblins snatch away the havis when the śrāddha is offered without tilaṣ The Kṛtyaratnākara (p. 540) quotes a verse as follows: ‘he who applies as unguent tilas, who bathes with water in which tilas are mixed, offers tilas into fire, makes gifts of tilas, eats tilas and who grows tilas—these six never sink (i. e. are not unlucky nor in trouble).

A great deal is said about the vessels to be used in offering arghya (water for honouring the invited brāhmaṇas and pindas), for cooking śrāddha food, for dining and for serving. The Śrāddhasūtra of Kātyāyana ²⁰⁶ provides that the arghya water should be taken in camasas (cups) made of sacrificial trees (such as palāśa, aśvattha, udumbara) or in vessels of gold, silver, copper, rhinoceros horn, precious stones whichever may be available, or in a vessel made of leaveṣ The Viṣṇu Dh. S. (79. 14-15) provides that the performer should employ metallic vessels, particularly vessels made of silver. The Mārkaṇḍeya (31.65) and Vāyu (74.3) state that in a vessel of silver the (ancient) pitṛs milked svadhā and hence a silver vessel is highly desired by pitṛs and brings de- light to theṃ Yaj. I. 237 also specially recommends silver vesselṣ The Vāyu (74. 1-2), Matsya (17. 19-22), Brahmāṇḍa (Upodghāta 11. 1-2) and Padma (Sṛṣṭikhaṇḍa 9. 147-150) state that vessels of gold, silver or copper are the (proper) ones for pitṛs; that even the talk about silver or the sight or gift of silver gives inexhaustible results to pitṛs in heaven, that vessels to be used for arghya, for piṇḍa and for the food to be offered should be preferably of silver and that in rites for gods a silver vessel is not auspiciouṣ Atri (q by Sṃ C. II. p. 464) says that in rites for the gods and pitṛs, vessels of gold and silver should be respectively employed and in default of these vessels of other metals (such as copper, bell-metal) should be used (as stated by Viṣṇu Dh. S. 79.22 and 24). The Padma provides ²⁰⁷ that the vessels may be of sacrificial wood or of palāśa or of silver or made from a sea product (such as conch shell) and that since silver was produced from the eye of Śiva, it is a great favourite with pitṛṣ Prajāpati (111) provides that the three piṇḍas should be cast in a vessel of gold or silver or copper or bell- metal or of rhinoceros horn but not in earthenware or a wooden vessel, that (verse 112) the cooking vessels should be of copper or of any metal, but an earthen vessel baked in fire and immersed in water is the best (for cooking), that food cooked in an iron vessel is like crow's flesh, that (115) the vessels to be used for taking food by the brāhmaṇas should be made of gold, silver or of an alloy of five metals or they may take their food in patrāvali (i. e. leaves stitched together); vide also Matsya 17. 19-20. The use of plantain leaves for bhojana is forbidden²⁰⁸ by some. Brāhmaṇas should not take ācamana from a vessel made of bell-metal, kharpara, śukra, stone, clay, wood, fruit or iroṇ Ācamana should be performed with water from a copper vessel. Atri (153) prescribes that no food should be served from an iron vessel; if so served the food is like ordure to the diner and the server goes to hell. The vessels for cooking śrāddha food are to be made of gold, silver, copper or bell-metal or even of clay provided the last are new ones and strong (well baked) but never of iroṇ Vide Sr. Pr. p. 155 for detailṣ The Viṣṇu Dh S. (79. 24) quotes a verse which says that food offered in vessels of gold, silver, copper, rhinoceros horn or of phalgu wood becomes inexhaustible.

Viṣṇu Dh. S 79. 11 provides that for unguents ( anulepana ) to be applied to the bodies of the invited brāhmaṇas, sandal-wood, saffron, camphor, aguru, padmaka may be useḍ The Brahmapurāṇa (220, 165-166) mentions kustha, jatā-mānsī, nutmeg, usīra, mustā and some others as proper perfumed articles to be used at śrāddhaṣ

It has already been seen at pp. 413-14 what kinds of food were recommended or condemned for śrāddha. The Matsyapurāṇa ²⁰⁹ states that food containing milk and curds and clarified butter from cow's milk mixed with sugar gives satisfaction to all pitṛs for one month and that whatever food, whether cow's milk or ghee or rice cooked in milk, is mixed with honey, yields inexhaustible resultṣ The Brahmapurāṇa also (220, 182-184) provides that such eatables as are sweet and oily and are slightly sour and pungent should be served in śrāddha and one should shun eatables that are very sour or very saltish or very pungent, since they are āsu-a (fit for asuras). Great emphasis was laid on serving preparations of food made from māsa. beanṣ The Auśanasa²¹⁰—smṛti pronounces the threat that the brāhmaṇa, who, when dining at śrāddha, does not eat māsa food, becomes a beast for twenty-one births after death. The Sṃ C. quotes a smṛti text saying that a śrāddha in which no māsa preparation is offered is as good as not performeḍ

The greatest divergence has prevailed about the employ- ment of flesh at śrāddhas among writers from the earliest timeṣ The subject of flesh-eating in general has been discussed at great length in the History of dharmaśāstra, vol. II. pp 772-782. A few remarks about flesh in relation to śrāddha will not be out of place here. The Āp. Dh. S. prescribes²¹¹ that the obligatory śrāddha (to be performed every month) must contain food mixed with fat, the best course (for supplying fat) is to employ clarified butter and flesh; on failure of these two, sesa- mum oil and vegetables may be employeḍ The same sūtra also provides²¹² that the pitṛs are gratified for a year by the offering of cow's flesh in a śrāddha, that by the flesh of a buffalo the gratification of pitṛs extends to more than a year, that this rule extends to the flesh of wild animals (like hares) and village (or domesticated) animals (like goats) that are declared to be fit for being sacrificed, that the gratification of pitṛs extends to endless time if the flesh of a rhinoceros is offered to brāhmaṇas seated on rhinoceros skin, so also by the flesh of the IV] fish called 'śātabali' and the flesh of a Vārddhīnasa. Vaṣ XL 34 contains the following remarkable verse: 'an ascetic, when invited in a rite for the gods or pitrs, who avoids (does not partake of) flesh, dwells in Hell for as many years as the number of hair (on the body of the animal whose flesh he avoids).' Even the Visnudharmottarapurāṇa (I. 140. 49-50) emphatically asserts that he who does not partake of flesh-food in a row of diners at a śrāddha which has been properly em- ployed goes to hell. Manu V. 35 and Kūrma II. 17.40 contain a similar verse applicable to all those who are invited as brāh- manas at a śrāddha. The Kūrmapurāṇa II. 22.75 provides that the brāhmaṇa who is employed for the performance of a śrāddha and does not eat flesh offered therein becomes a beast for 21 birthṣ Manu III. 257 states that the following are said to be proper offerings in a śrāddha by their very nature viz. food (prepared from nivāra grain and the like) fit for a forest hermit, milk, soma juice, flesh that does not emit foul smell and unmanufactured salt. An ascetic was ordinarily required not to partake of flesh; but Vasiṣṭha insisted on his partaking of it when invited at a śrāddha.

Manu III. 267-272, Yāj. I 258-260, Vispu Dh. S. 80 1 ff, Anuśāsanaparva chap. 88, the Śrāddhasūtra of Kātyāyan (kandikāṣ 7-8), Kūrmapurāṇa II, 20. 40-42, 29. 2-8, Vayu 83. 3-9, Matsya 7. 31-35, Viṣṇupurāṇa III, 16.1-3, Padmapurāṇa (Srsti 9. 158-164 ), Brahmapurāṇa 220 23-29, Visnudharmottara I 141.42-47 state at length the periods of time for which pitrs are gratified by the flesh of certain animals being served at śrāddha. The verses of Yāj being the shortest in all these works are given below. Yāj. ²¹³ states; Pitrs are gratified by the serving of sacrificial food (such as rice, fruits, roots & c ) for a month, for a year by (cows's milk or) rice cooked in cow's milk, for 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 months respectively by the flesh of fishes (pāthīna), of (red coloured) deer, of ram, of a bird (such as a tittiri), of a goat, of a spotted deer, of a dark-coloured deer, of a ruru deer, of a wild boar, of a hare, the offering of rhinoceros flesh, of a fish called Mahāśālka, etc. honey, of food fit for hermits (wild corn such as nīvāra), the flesh of a red goat, of Mahāśaka (i. e. Kalāśaka), and the flesh of Vārdhrīnasa—these secure inexhaustible fruit. There is some divergence of views among the several workṣ For example, Manu III. 267 and 271, Kātyāyana (in śrāddhasūtra 7) appear to hold that by offering food prepared from village corn (such as rice, māsa & c.) or wild eatables (such as nīvāra or fruits and roots) the gratification is only for one month and the flesh of Vārdhrīnasa produces gratification for twelve years only (and not for all time). Viṣṇu Dh. S. 80,10 and Manu III. 270 bring in buffalo flesh and tortoise flesh as giving gratification for ten and eleven month respectively. Hemādri (on śrāddha p. 590)²¹⁴ is careful to point out that these words about the duration of time are not to be taken literally but what is really intended is to convey greater and greater gratification of the pitṛs according to the kind of flesh offereḍ Pulastya quoted by the Mit and Aparārka p. 555 provides that a brāhmaṇa should generally or mainly offer at a śrāddha hermit's food, a kṣatriya or a vaiśya should offer flesh, a śūdra should offer honey and all varṇas may offer anything else (except these three) which is not forbiddeṇ²¹⁵ Whoever may be the offered, the eater at a śrāddha dinner was to be a brāhmaṇa alone and so it follows that brāhmaṇas invited to a śrāddha by a kṣatriya or vaiśya had to eat flesh. Yet it is remarkable that even the mitākṣarā and the Kalpataru written about 1100–1120 A. D. do not expressly say that in the Kali age flesh-eating at śrāddha is totally prohibited at least for brāhmaṇaṣ It has been shown already (H. of Dh. vol III. pp. 775-776) that even when animal sacrifices were the order of the day in the Ṛgveda and the Brāhmaṇas there was an undercurrent of thought that the offerings of fuel-sticks or of boiled rice when made with heart-felt devotion to the gods were as good as flesh offerings for Securing their favour. In course of time that conception grew str- onger and stronger, so much so that Manu (V. 27-44 and V. 46-47) and Vasiṣṭha appear to be in two minds (vide H. of Dh. vol. II pp. 778-780). Gradually the offering of flesh in Madhuparka and in śrāddhas came to be totally condemned in works of the 12th and 13th centuries and onwards as a matter prohibited in the Kali age (Varātitipitrbhyāśca paśūpakaranakriyā). (Vide H. of Dh. vol III pp. 945-946 and p. 964). Now except among the brāhmaṇas (in Northern India) who have no objection to include fish in diet as permissible to them no brāhmaṇa offers flesh in śrāddha. The usage of Northern India would be in accordance with the view set out in Bṛhannāradīya purāṇa that one should offer honey, flesh and other things according to the usage of the country, as explained by the Pṛthvīcandrodaya.

Manu (V.11–18) contains long lists of animals, birds and fishes whose flesh was not to be eaten even by those who were flesh-eaterṣ

If a person is destitute, some of the Purāṇas such as the Viṣṇu (III. 4.24-30) and the Varāha (13.53–58) mercifully provide in identical ²¹⁶ verses that instead of entertaining brāhmaṇas with a sumptuous dinner or flesh the poor man may offer only un- cooked corn, or some vegetables growing wildly or some slight dakṣiṇā if he cannot offer even uncooked food or vegetables, or he may offer a few grains of sesamum (7 or 8) to a brāhmaṇa with water in his folded hands, or grass to a cow enough for one day and if he cannot afford even any one of these, then he may repair to a thicket of trees, raise his arms so that his armpits are exposed and loudly address the guardians of the worlds such as the Sun in the following words: ‘I have neither wealth nor money nor anything else fit to be offered by way of śrāddha; I bow to my pitṛs; may the pitṛs be satisfied by my devotion; I have stretched these arms in space!’ (lit. the path of the wind). It is now time to describe the procedure of the Pārvana-śrāddha ²¹⁶, which is the pattern or norm (prakṛti) of the other śrāddhas ²¹⁷ (even including the Aṣṭakās). Here one meets with great divergences of views even from the times of the sūtras up to modern timeṣ Though the main items and stages in the rite of śrāddha are generally the same, there is variation in the mantras, the details and sometimes in the order of the several itemṣ Kātyāyana lays down that every man has to follow his own sūtra as to the use of the word 'svāhā' or the words 'svadhā namaḥ', as to wearing the sacred thread in the yajñopavīta or prācīnāvīta way and as to the number of āhutis ²¹⁸.

It would be very interesting first to find out the vestiges of the sacrifice to the fathers in the most ancient Vedic textṣ The Tai. S. (I 8 5. 1-2) deals ²¹⁹ with the Mahāpitṛyajña per- IV.1 "He offers to Soma accompanied by the pitrs six potsherds, to the pitrs Barhisadah (sitting on darbha grass or in a yajña) fried grains, for the pitrs called Agnisvatta he milks a drink from a cow which has to be won over (to another calf). This for thee, O father and for those who come after thee (i. e. for thy descendants); this for thee, O grandfather, and for those who come after thee; do, ye Pitrs rejoice in your portionṣ May we gladden thee, O Indra, that castes thy glance at us, come forth now with full chariot seat; being praised (by us) thou guest to places desired by you. Yoke, O Indra, thy two bay steedṣ They (pitaraḥ) have eaten, they have rejoiced, the dear ones have dispelled (evil); the radiant sages have been praised with newest hymn, Yoke, O Indra, thy two bay steedṣ The pitrs have eaten, the pitrs have rejoiced, the pitrs have been glad, the pitrs have purified themselveṣ Go away, O Pitrs, that art soma-loving by your majestic ancient pathṣ Then reach ye the pitrs that well know you (or everything) and that revel in the company of Yama."

In the Tai. ²²⁰ Br. I 2 10 the Pindapitryajña is dealt with at some length. In the note below the important passages are relevant to our purpose: “Therefore the rite (called Pindapitryajña) is performed the day previous (to the Darseṣṭi). He says 'to Soma drunk by the pitrs, svadhā! Adoration!' He says 'to Agni, the carrier of kavya, svadhā! Adoration! (Thereby) he pleases the fire that pertains to the pitrṣ He offers (into fire) three oblations; he puts down (on the darbhaspread on the ground) three pindaṣ (These) thus come to six in number. Six indeed are the seasonṣ He (thereby) pleases the seasonṣ The seasons are indeed the shining (or divine) pitrṣ.....The darbha grass is cut with one stroke; the pitrs have as it were (passed away) once for ever. He puts down thrice (the pindas) The pitrs are indeed in the third world from here. He (the performer) turns his face away (to the north from the south), for the Fathers are shy. He remains with his face turned away till the steam (of the boiled rice of the pindas) ceases to rise, for the Fathers have the steam of rice as their share; he should simply smell (the pindas). That as if does not amount to eating or non-eating. The pitrs when departing (from the śrāddha rite) take away or grant a valiant soṇ He cuts off the fringe (of a garment to place it on the pindas), for the share of Fathers is taking away (what is offered). He (thereby) allots their proper share to the pitrs (and dismisses them). When (the performer) is in the latter part of life (i e. over 50 years of age) he cuts off hair (from his chest instead of presenting a datā) At that time he is nearer to the pitrs (when above 50 years of age). He offers adoration, because adoration (namaskāra) is dear to the pitrṣ Adoration to you, O Fathers, for vigour; adoration to you, O fathers, for life, adoration to you, O fathers, for svadhā, adoration to you, O fathers, for ardour; adoration, O fathers, for the terrible! O fathers' here is adoration to you. This (pindapitryajña) is indeed a sacrifice of men (i e. sacrifice to departed men) and other sacrifices belong to the gods " In the Tai Br. I 4 10 the Pitryajña performed in sukamēdha is praised (in 2) and further on it is said that Ṛtus (seasons) are pitrs and they offered pitryajña to Prajāpati, their father. This passage supports the provision made in Manu and some of the digests that the Ṛtus are to be identified with pitrs and obeisance is to be made to theṃ²²² The Śat. Br. (II, 4, 2) contains the following somewhat fuller account of the Pinda-pitryajña, omitting legendary or other irrelevant matters —When the moon is not seen either in the east or in the west, then he (the performer of the Darśa sacrifice) presents food to the Fathers in each month ...... He presents it in the midday to men; and the afternoon indeed belongs to the gods; the midday to men; and the afternoon to the Fathers; therefore he presents (food to the Fathers) in the afternooṇ While seated behind the Gārhapatya fire with his face turned towards the south and the sacred thread on his right shoulder he takes that material (for the offering from the cart). Thereupon he rises from thence and threshes the rice while standing north of the Dakṣiṇa fire and facing the south. Only once does he clean the rice, for it is once for all that the fathers have passed away. He then boils it. While it stands on (the Dakṣiṇa fire) he pours some clarified butter on it. After removing it (from the fire) he offers to the gods two oblations in the fire ...... Here he is engaged in a sacrifice to the Fathers; hence he thereby propitiates the gods and being permitted by the gods, he presents that food to the Fatherṣ He offers to both Agni and Soma .. He offers with the formula 'To Agni, the carrier of kavya (what is offered to the Manes), svāhā!', 'To Soma accompanied by the Fathers, svāhā!' (Vāj S. II 29). He then puts the pot-ladle (mekṣaṇa) on the fire, that being in lieu of the Sviṣṭakṛt. Thereafter he draws (with the sphya, the wooden sword) one line south of the Dakṣiṇa fire, that being in lieu of the altar. He then lays down a firebrand at the further (south) end of the line. For, were he to present that food to the Fathers without having laid down a firebrand, the Asuras and Rakṣasas would certainly tamper with it. ... He lays it down with the text ‘whatsoever Asuras roam about being attracted by the svadhā (offering to Fathers), assuming various shapes, be they large-bodied or small-bodied, may Agni expel them from this world (Vāj. S. II 30)... He then takes the water jar and makes the Fathers wash (their hands) merely saying ‘N. N. wash thyself’ (naming) the sacrificer’s father; ‘N. N. wash thy- self (naming the sacrificer’s) grandfather; ‘N. N., wash thyself’ (naming) the sacrificer's great-grandfather. As one would pour out water (for a guest) when he is about to take food, so in this case. Now those (stalks of sacrificial grass) are severed with one stroke and cut off near the root; the root part (of darbhas) to the fatherṣ Therefore they are cut off near the roots ...... He spreads them along with the line with their tops towards the south. Thereon he presents (to the fathers the three round cakes of rice). He presents thus :— for the gods they offer thus for men they ladle out; and in the case of the fathers they do in this very way; therefore he presents (the cakes to the fathers) thus With 'N. N., this for thee!' he presents one cake to the sacrificer's father. Some add 'for those that come after thee', but let him not say this, since he himself is' one of those to whom it would be offered in commoṇ Let him therefore merely say 'N. N., this for thee!' as to the sacrificer's father; 'N. N., this for thee' as to his grandfather; 'N. N., this for thee' as to his great- grandfather He then mutters 'Here, O fathers, regale your- selves; like bulls come hither each to his own share!' (Vāj. S. II, 31). Whereby he says 'Eat each his own share'. He then turns round to the left so as to face the opposite (north) side; for the fathers are far away from men; and thereby he also is far away (from the fathers). 'Let him remain (standing with bated breath) until his breath fail' say some; 'for thus far extends the vital energy'. However, having remained so far a moment—he again turns round (to the right) and mutters 'the Fathers have regaled themselves; like bulls they have come each to his own share' (Vāj. S. II, 31); whereby what he says is 'they have eaten each his own share'. Thereupon he takes the water jar and makes them wash themselves (by pouring water on the pindas), merely saying 'N. N., wash thyself' (naming) the sacrificer's father; 'N. N. wash thyself' (naming) his grandfather; 'N. N., wash thyself' (naming) his paternal great-grandfather. Even as one would pour out (water for a guest). When he has taken his meal, so it is here. He then pulls down the tuck (of the sacrificer's garment) and performs obeisance. The tuck is sacred to the Fathers; therefore he performs obeisance to them after pulling down the tuck. ... Six times he performs obeisance, for there are six seasons ;and the fathers are the seasonṣ He mutters 'Give us houses, O fathers', for the fathers are the rulers of houses; and this is the prayer for blessing at this sacrificial performance. After the pindas have been put back (in a dish) the sacrificer smells at (the rice); this (smelling) being the sacrificer’s share. The stalks of darbha cut with one stroke he puts on the fire; and he also throws away the firebrand on to the fire.²²⁴

It will be noticed that many of the fundamental conceptions of a pārvaṇa-śrāddha are very clearly brought out in the Śat. Br. Wearing the sacred thread on the right shoulder, afternoon as the proper time, cleansing the paddy only once, boiling the rice on the Dakṣiṇa fire, offering into the same fire two oblations to the gods first, the two formulas of presentation to Agni Kavyavāhana and to Soma Pitṛmat, drawing a line or furrow to the south of the Dakṣiṇa fire, laying down a firebrand, making the three paternal ancestors wash (avanejana),⁹⁶¹ darbha grass severed from near the root, spreading the darbhas on the line or furrow and offering three piṇḍas to the three ancestors to regale themselves, turning away from the pindas for a moment and then resuming his position and saying that the ancestors have regaled themselves, offering water for washing (pratīyavanejana), pulling down the tuck and performing obeisance six times (and identifying the Fathers with seasons) and praying to the Fathers to bestow houses, smelling the boiled rice, throwing the darbhas and firebrand into the fire—these are the principal matters even now in the Pārvaṇa-śrāddha per-formed by students of the Śukla Yajurveda, although several other details (such as the introduction of the mother's paternal ancestors) and some mantras are addeḍ The Kātyāyana Śr. IV. 1. closely follows the Śat. Br., but adds certain details viz. he folds his hands and repeats the six mantras (Vāj. S. II. 32 'namo vaḥ pitaro rasāya' &c) throwing three threads on each piṇḍa with the mantra 'etadvah' (Vāj. S. II. 32) or the woollen fringe of a garment or hair from the chest of the sacrificer when he is beyond fifty years of age, sprinkling water on the piṇḍas or on the ground near them with (Vāj. S. II 34)⁹⁶².

The other saṁhitās also contain identical mantraṣ For example, the Vāj. S. II. 29-34 ⁹⁶³ are mantras most of which are employed in the Piṇḍapitṛyajña in Sākameda ²²⁸. Similarly, in the Maitrāyaṇī saṃhitā²²⁹ I, 10.3. 10–21 these are mantras for the pitṛyajña employed in Sākameda many of which are the same as in Vāj. S. or Tai. Br. M. S. I. 10. 3.11 is the same as Vāj. S. III 52 and M. S. I 10. 3. 17–20 are the same as Vāj. S. III, 51, 53–55. M. S. I. 10, 3, 13–14 greatly resemble Vāj. S. II. 32 and Tai. Br. I, 3, 10, 8. Coming to the sūtra literature, it is best to begin with the procedure of pārvaṇaśrāddha as described in the Āśv. gr. IV. 7–8 ²³⁰. It is stated by the Anākula on Āp. gr. 21.1 that the monthly śrāddha (māsi-śrāddha) is the prakṛti of Aṣṭaka and other śrāddhas in which three ancestors are to be invokeḍ It is as followṣ Now then at a Pārvaṇa-śrāddha, or at a śrāddha celebrated for securing some desired object, or at an Abhyu- dayika-śrāddha or at an Ekoddiṣṭaśrāddha, the performer causes to sit down brāhmaṇas who are endowed with learning, moral character and proper conduct or who are endowed with (at least) one (of these three characteristics), who have been invited already in proper time, who have taken a bath, whose feet are washed (by the performer) and who have sipped water (taken ācamana), as representatives of (or equal to) the Fathers, with their faces turned to the north, one for each of the Fathers, or two for each or three for each. The larger the number of brāhmaṇas invited the greater is the fruit or rewarḍ But in no case (should he invite) only one for all (the Fathers), or he may invite only one brāhmaṇa except at the first śrāddha ²³¹. By the exposition of the Piṇḍapitṛyajña the rules for the pārvaṇa-śrāddha have been declareḍ Having given water (into the hands of the invited brāhmaṇa or brāhmaṇas after they sit down) and double-folded darbha blades as a seat (on which the darbhas are to be kept), having again given water to them and having poured water into three vessels of metal (silver &c.), of stone and of earthenware or into three vessels made of the same substance (out of these three) which are covered over with darbha blades and having recited (over the water in the vessels) the verse 'śanno &c.' (Ṛg X. 9,4) ²³² the performer puts sesamum grains into the water with the mantra “Sesamum art thou, Soma is thy deity, at the Gosava ²³³ sacrifice thou hast been created by the gods, thou hast been offered by persons who are like ancient ones; through the svadhā mayst thou make the Fathers and these worlds pleased with us! svadhā! Adoration!” The different items of the rite are performed from the right to the left ²³⁴. With the part of the hand (i. e. left) between the thumb ²³⁵ (and forefinger) since he wears the sacred thread over the left shoulder, or with the right which he seizes with the left, (he offers the Arghya water) to Fathers with the words ‘Father, this is the arghya for thee; Grand-father, this is the arghya for thee; Great-grand-father, this is the arghya for thee, after first offering (ordinary) water to the Fatherṣ When about to induce the brāh- manas to accept the arghya water he should once only (for each brāhmaṇa or group of brāhmaṇas for each of the Fathers) say to them ‘svadhā! these are arghya waters’ and then over the waters that are poured out he recites the verse (separately for each brāhmaṇa) ‘The heavenly waters which have been produced on the earth, in the aerial regions and the waters that are terrestrial, that are golden-hued, and fit for sacrifice-may these waters bring us welfare and be favourable to us’. Pouring together (in the first vessel) what has been left in the vessels (for holding arghya water) he anoints his face with that water if he (the performer) desires that a son be born to hiṃ ‘He should not remove the first vessel into which the arghya water for the Fathers has been poured (till the end of the rite). The Fathers dwell therein concealed; thus did Śaunaka say²³⁶. Just at that time the gifts of sandalwood paste, flowers, incense, lamp, and clothes are to be offered (to the brāhmaṇas).²³⁷ Having taken some food (from the Sthālipāka prepared for Pindapitṛyajña) and smeared it with ghee he asks the brāhmaṇas’ permission in the words ‘I shall offer it in the fire’ or in the words ‘let me offer in the fire’. The permission is given (by the brāhmaṇas) in the words ‘Let it be done’ or in the words ‘do it’. He then sacrifices in the fire as stated before²³⁸ or (if the brāhmaṇas give permission) in the hands of the brāhmaṇas; since the Brāhmaṇa text says ‘fire is verily the mouth of the Fathers’. If he offers in the hands of the brāh- IV] manas ²³⁹, then he assigns other food to them after they have sipped water and the food (that remains) is mixed with the food that is served to the brāhmaṇas, since it is said 'what is abandoned and given to (brāhmaṇas) ²⁴⁰ brings prosperity'. When he sees that the brāhmaṇas are satiated (with the food served at the dinner) he (the performer) should recite to the brāhmaṇas the verses containing the word 'madhu' (Rg. I. 90. ²⁴¹ 6-8) and also the verse 'they have eaten, they have enjoyed them- selves' (Rg. I. 82,2). Having asked the brāhmaṇas 'was the dinner perfect?' (they should reply that it was) and then having taken (portions of) the different foods that were enjoyed by the brāhmaṇas together with the sthalīpāka food in order ²⁴² to make lumps (piṇḍas) thereof he should present all (the rest of the food) to the brāhmaṇaṣ After the brāhmaṇas have either accepted (the rest of the food) or given him permission (to use it for his family and friends), and after they have finished eating he should, before they have sipped water (performed ācamana after finishing their dinner), put down the lumps ²⁴³ (piṇḍas) for the Fatherṣ According to some teachers (piṇḍas are put down) after the brāhmaṇas have sipped water (on getting up from the dinner). Having strewn the food on the ground (near the remnants of food) and wearing the sacred thread on his left shoulder ²⁴⁴ he should (after turning the first vessel with top upside and after giving dakṣiṇā to the brāhmaṇas) bid adieu to the brāhmaṇas saying 'utter Om! Svadha' or he should say 'Om ! Svadha !' (and they should reply ‘Om ! Svadha !’).²⁴⁴

From considerations of space it is impossible to set out all the differences among the several grhyasūtras of the Ṛgveda, of the Taittirīya śākhā (viz. Baudhāyana, Āp, Hir., Bharadvāja and Vaikhānasa), of the Vājasaneya śākhā (such as Śrāddhasūtra of Kātyāyana), of the Sāmaveda (such as Gobhila and Khādira) and of the Atharvaveda (being Kauśika sūtra) A few matters may be set out by way of illustratioṇ The Āp. gr. (21. 3–4)²⁴⁵ states that (after the brāhmaṇas are invited for śrāddha dinner) from the food prepared for the dinner a portion is taken out in a vessel and therefrom seven āhutis are cast into the fire with the seven mantras beginning with ‘yan me mātā’ (in Āp. M. P. II. 19. 1–7), the first two for the father, the next two for the grand-father, next two for the great-grand-father and the 7th to pitrs in general with svāhā (but without naming any one) and then six oblations of clarified butter are offered with the six formulas beginning with ‘svāhā pitre’ (Āp. M. P. II. 19 8–13). Thus the agnaukaraṇa in Āp consists of two parts viz. āhutis of food and of clarified butter, while in Āśv it is made only with fooḍ Then the performer should touch all food (cooked food and the remainder of what is employed for offering into fire) with the three mantras ‘eśa te tata madhumān’ (Āp. M. P. II. 19. 14–16); he should make the brāhmaṇas touch the food served to each with the Yajus formula ‘the earth is thy vessel’ (Āp. M. P. 2. 20. 1) quoted in ṇ 992 below.

Āp. gr. prescribes the mantra, ‘putrān pautrān’ (Āp. M. P. II. 20. 24) for moistening the piṇḍas, while Bauḍ gr. and Vaikhānasa gr. (IV. 6) employ the mantra ‘ūrjam vahantīr’ (Vāj. S. II. 34) for the same purpose. It may be noted that these sūtras which belong to the Taittirīya śākhā employ a verse from another recension viz. the Śukla Yajurveda.

The Hir. Gr. (II. 10–13) is more elaborate than the Āp. Gr. and not only sets out at length many of the mantras in Āp. M. P. II. 19–20, but adds some more. The Śrāddhasūtra of Kātyāyana (1–3) sets out the procedure of the monthly śrāddha almost in the same way as the Yājñavalkyasmṛti (which is set out below). It states that in the monthly śrāddha, first come the daiva rites and then the various items occur as in the Pinda-pitṛyajña 'piṇḍapitṛyajña-vad-upacārāḥ' (first sūtra of the 2nd kaṇḍikā) Some details which it contains (and Yaj. does not expressly mention) may be set out here. It gives in full the mantras 'tilosi', 'yā divyā' (both of which occur in Āśv. gr.), 'pṛthivī to pātram' (which is Āp. M. P. II. 20.1). It prescribes that in addition to the Gāyatrī and the Madhumatī verses the word 'madhu' should be repeated thrice. The holy texts to be repeated while the brāhmaṇas are engaged in eating according to Kātyāyana are the Gāyatrī (once or thrice), the five Rakṣoghni verses (Rg. IV. 4. 1–5, Vaj. S. XIII. 9–13, Tai. S. I 2. 14. 1–2), Purusaśūkta, the Apratiratha hymn (Rg. X. 103. 1–13 = Vaj. S. 17. 33–34, 46 = Tai. S. IV. 6. 1–4) and otherṣ It expressly states that the svadhāvācana (Yaj. I 244) relates to both paternal and maternal ancestorṣ Besides the blessing contained in Yaj I 246, Kātyāyana provides that the performer is to pray for and the brāhmaṇas are to pronounce two more viz. 'May the pitṛs be kind (lit not dreadful) to us' and 'May our family prosper'. Dr Caland in his learned work ‘Altindischer Ahnencult’ (pp. 150–152) appears inclined to hold that when a sūtrakāra has not actually said anything on certain items in the śrāddha ritual, one has no right to anticipate, on the authority of later authors, that those items existed in the times of that sūtrakāra. I demur to this conclusioṇ Dr. Caland has attached no weight to the fact that Jaimini (as stated in H. of Dh. vol III p 870) laid down the principle that one may include certain items from another śākhā. Jaimini’s sūtras cannot be supposed to have laid down those propositions for the first time. Jaimini’s sūtras are at least as old as some of the extant śrauta sūtras such as that of Kātyāyana. Therefore hardly any chrono-logical conclusions can be drawn with certainty from the silence of a sūtrakāra as to a certain item in the śrāddha ritual.

We shall now turn to the metrical smṛtis Manu treats of the procedure of śrāddha at some length in III. 208–265. But as the procedure prescribed by the Yājñavalkyasmṛti (I. 225-249) is more compact and at the same time more lucid it is set out here. “When the invited brāhmaṇas come in the afternoon the performer having a pavitra²⁴⁶ in his hand should seat them on seats and make them sip water. The brāhmaṇas invited should be even in number (2, 4 &c.) according to the performer's resources at the daiva rite (i. e. the Vaiśvadevika brāhmaṇas should be two, four &c.) and uneven (three or five &c.) at a (pārvaṇa) śrāddha for the pitṛs; the brāhmaṇas should be seated in a pure (cowdunged) plot screened on all sides and sloping towards the south. At the daiva (part of pārvaṇa- śrāddha when Viśve-devāḥ are to be invoked) two brāhmaṇas facing the east should sit down and three brāhmaṇas facing the north should be seated in the rite for the pitṛs or only one may be seated for each (i. e. in daiva and in pitrya). The same rule applies to a śrāddha for maternal ancestorṣ In both (pitṛśrāddha and mātāmahāśrāddha) the worship of Viśve- devāḥ may be performed separately or simultaneously²⁴⁷. Then having poured water on the hands of the brāhmaṇas (meant for the rite in honour of viśve-devāḥ) and having given kusa blades for a seat³⁵¹ (towards their right side on the seat already (Continued on next page) occupied), he should, with the permission of the invited bräh- manas, invoke the Visvedeväh with the verse 'O' all the gods come!' (Rg. II. 41. 13 or VI. 52. 7; Vaj. S. V. 34) Having scattered on the ground (near the brāhmaṇas representing Viśve-deväh) barley grains and then having cast into a vessel (of metal &c) covered with a pavitra water with the verse 'śan no devir' (Rg. X. 9. 4, Vaj. S 36.12, Tai. Är. IV. 42.4) and barley grains with the mantra, 'Yavosi' (Vaj. S. V. 26, Tai. S. I. 3. 1. 1) and (also sandalwood paste and flowers) he should place in the hands (of the brāhmaṇas) the arghya²⁴⁹ water with the verse 'yä divyä' (those heavenly waters &c., Tai. Br. II. 7. 15. 4). Then he should pour water into the hand (of the Vaiśva-deva brāhmaṇa or brāhmaṇas) for washing the hand and give to them perfumes, flowers, incense, lamp ²⁵⁰ and garment, Then wearing the sacred thread on the right shoulder²⁵¹ and under the left arm (i. e. being prācīnāvitī) the performer should offer to the pitṛs (i. e. to the three brāhmaṇas representing them) double-folded kuśas (with water) for a seat on the left (i e on the seats already occupied kuśas should be placed on the left side for a vistara), he should then invoke²⁵² the pitṛs after taking the permission of the brāhmaṇas with the ṛk 'uśantas-tvā' (Ṛg. X. 16. 12, Vāj. S. 19. 70, Tai. S. II. 6. 12. 1), and should then recite in a low voice the mantra (āyantu naḥ pitaraḥ) 'may the pitṛs come to us' (Vāj. S. 19. 58). The performer, having scattered sesamum seeds all round (the brāhmaṇas) with the mantra 'Apahatā' (Vāj S II. 29), should employ sesamum for all purposes where yavas were employed (in the daiva part of the ceremony) and should perform all the items such as giving arghya (water for worship) for the pitṛs as before (for the daiva rite). After offering arghya water, he should collect the drops of the arghya water fallen from the hands (or fingers) of the brāhmaṇas in one vessel (the pitṛ vessel), them turn it upside down ²⁵³ on the ground (over a bunch of kuśas with ends turned towards the south) with the mantra ‘thou art a place for the pitṣ’ ²⁵⁴ Then, being about to perform ‘agnaukarana’ (offer- ing in sacrifice), he takes the food mixed with clarified butter and asks the brāhmaṇas (in the words ‘I shall offer into the sacred fire’) and when permitted by them with the words ‘do so’, he offers into the fire (two portions cut off from the food mixed with ghee) with a mekṣaṇa ²⁵⁵ according to the procedure laid down for Pindapitṛyajña. He, being intent (only on performing śrāddha correctly), should serve the food that remains after (making the two offerings mentioned above) in plates (except earthen one) that he may be able to secure, and particularly silver ones (plates are meant for feeding pitṛya brāhmaṇas). After serving the food in the plates, he should invoke over the plates the mantra 'the earth is thy²⁵⁶ support', he should take hold of the thumb of the brāhmaṇas and put it on the food (served in the plates) with the mantra ²⁵⁷ 'idam Viṣṇur' ('Viṣṇu strode over this' Rg. I. 22. 17, Vāj. S. V. 15, Tai S. I, 2, 13, 1). The performer should then mutter the Gāyatri verse (Rg. III 62. 10, Vāj. S. III. 35, Tai. S. I. 5. 6. 4) together with 'Om' and the 'Vyāhṛtis' and the three verses beginning with 'Madhu vāta' (Rg. I. 90. 6–8, Vāj. S. 13. 27–29, Tai. S IV. 2 9. 3), he should say 'partake (of the food) as you please' and the brāhmaṇas also should eat the food silently. He should serve without anger or bustle food fit for being offered as havis (in a śrāddha) and liked by the brāhmaṇas till they are satiated (so that some food is left in their plates) and should repeat (while the brāh- maṇas are engaged in eating) sacred texts and the texts for Japa (Gāyatri &c. already referred to in Yāj. I. 239 above). The sacred texts to be repeated according to the Mit on Yāj. I. 240 are the Puruṣasūkta (Rg. X. 90.*1-16), the Pāvamānī verses (i. e. verses like 'svādiṣṭhayā madiṣṭhayā' from the 9th mandala of the Ṛgveda as stated by Medhātithi on Manu III. 86 and Haradatta on Gautama (19. 12). Manu III. 232 mentions other works for recitation such as the dharmaśāstras, ākhyānas, itihāsa (Mahābhārata), purāṇas and khilas (like Śrīsūkta and Vidyāsūkta). There is great divergence of views about the sacred texts to be recited by the performer in a low voice, while the brāhmaṇas are engaged in partaking the food cooked for śrāddha. Vide note 1005 below. It may be that the japa of sacred texts is to be done by the performer wearing the sacred thread in the upavīta way as stated by Hemādri p. 1070 and the Madana-pārijāta p. 599, but the Śrāddhatattva (p. 231) is opposed to this and relies on Manu III. 279. Certain verses from the Purāṇas also are to be recited such as the verses from the Varāhapurāṇa (14. 26-31) and Viṣṇupurāṇa (III. 15. 31-36, which are identical with the preceding) quoted by the Kalpataru on śrāddha (p. 197), Aparārka (p. 502) and Hemādri (on śrāddha p. 109), the first and last of which are quoted in the note below ²⁵⁸. The Garuḍapurāṇa (Ācārakhaṇḍa 218.20 ff.) prescribes that while the brāhmaṇas are eating one may recite a eulogy of pitṛs such as the 'saptavyādha' verses ²⁵⁸. Then, after holding the food in his hands, the performer should ask the brāhmaṇas 'are you satisfied' (and after they reply that they are satisfied) he should tell them that there is food still left (and ask them what to do with it) and after taking their per- mission ²⁵⁹ (in the words ‘partake of it along with your friends and relations’), he should spread (in front of the brāhmaṇas for pitṛs) the remaining food on (darbhas with their ends to the south placed over) the ground (with the mantra ‘ye agni-dagdhāḥ’, those that were cremated and those that were not cremated &c.) and he should pour water once for each into his hand (for rinsing the mouth). Collecting all the cooked food (i. e. portions from each food) with sesamum mixed with it, the performer facing the south should offer the piṇḍas near the remains of the food (eaten by the brāhmaṇas) according to the procedure of the piṇḍapitṛyajña. For maternal ancestors also the same procedure is to be followed (from invoking the Viśve-devāḥ to offering piṇḍas). Then he should give water to the brāhmaṇas for sipping. Then (he should say to the brāhmaṇas ‘pronoance benediction’); after making the brāhmaṇas say ‘svasti’, he should offer water into their hands for saying ‘let it be inexhaustible (after he requests them ‘let it be inexhaustible’). Then after giving to the brāhmaṇas dakṣiṇā (fee or presents)²⁶⁰ according to the ability of the performer, he should say to the brāhmaṇas “may I request you to repeat the word ‘svadhā’” and when they permit him in the words ‘do request us’, he should say ‘let svadhā be pronounced for the persons concerned’ (i. e. the pitṛs and maternal ancestors). Then the brāhmaṇas should say ‘let there be svadhā’. On the brāhmaṇas saying so, he should sprinkle water on the ground and say ‘let the Viśve-devāḥ be pleased’ and when the brāhmaṇas have responded with ‘lot the Viśvo-devāḥ be pleased’ he should mutter the follow- ing:²⁶¹ ‘May donors increase in our family, may the (study or teaching of) Vedas prosper and progeny increase (in our family); may our faith (in rites for pitrs) not vanish and may there be plenty of things for us to make gifts’.²⁶² Having muttered this, having spoken pleasing words to the brāhmaṇas,²⁶³ having fallen at their feet (after going round them) he being pleased in his heart should dismiss the brāhmaṇas with the mantra ‘Vāje vāje’ (Rg. VII, 38.8, Vāj. S. 21.11, Tai. S. I 7.8.2), the sending them away being so arranged that the brāhmaṇas representing the pitṛs start first,²⁶⁴ (i. e. first goes the representative of the great-grandfather, then the one for the grandfather, then the one for the father and then the one representing the Viśvedevāḥ). The vessel in which the drops of arghya water from the hands of the brāhmaṇas had been collected before should be turned face upwards²⁶⁵ and then the brāhmaṇas should be dismisseḍ After following the departing brāhmaṇas (up to the boundary) and going round them, he (should return) and should eat the food that (remains in the house after) the brāhmaṇas representing the pitṛs have partaken of it. He and the brāhmaṇas that partook of the śrāddha dinner should abstain from sexual intercourse on the night of the śrāddha day ²⁶⁶.

Many of the Purāṇas contain detailed descriptions of the śrāddha to be performed on every amāvāsyā; for example, Matsya 17. 12–60 (closely resembling Yāj. 225-259), Viṣṇu-purāṇa III. 15. 13-49, Mārkaṇḍeya 28 37-60, Kūrma (II 22. 20-62), Padma (sṛṣṭikhaṇḍa) 9. 140-186), Brahmāṇḍa (Upod-ghātapāda, chap. 12), Skanda VI. 224 3-51, Viṣṇudharmottara I 140. 6-44. The Agnipurāṇa chap. 163 verses 2-42 are the same (with very slight variations and the omission of 2½ verses) as Yāj. I. 227-270; while Agni chap. 117 contains many verses that closely follow the Āśv. Gṛ and Yāj. Similarly the Garuḍa-purāṇa contains numerous verses that are identical with Yājñavalkya'ṣ For example, compare Yāj. I. 229-239 with Garuḍa I. 99. 11-19. The Purāṇas closely follow the Gṛhya-sūtras, Manu and Yājñavalkya and often employ the same mantras and formulas, though here and there they introduce some detailṣ As remarked by the Varāhapurāṇa 14 51, the procedure for śrāddha is the same in all Purāṇas (iyam sarva-purāṇesu sāmānyā paitṛkī kriyā). For sample, a summary of the procedure in the Padma (sṛṣṭi 9. 140-186) is set out here. The performer having honoured the Viśve-devāh (i e. the brāh-maṇas or brāhmaṇas invited to represent them) with a seat and with yava grains and flowers should fill two vessels with water and should place them on a pavitra of darbhas The water should be offered with the verse 'śam no devīr' (Rg. X. 9.4) and the yava grains with 'Yavosi'. They should be invoked with the verse 'Viśve devāsaḥ' (Rg. II. 41 13) and yavas should be scattered about with the two verses 'Viśve devāsaḥ' (Rg. II. 41. 13-14) and he should scatter about yava grains with the verse 'thou art yava, the king of grains &c.' (quoted ²⁶⁷ below). After decking the brāhmaṇas with sandalwood paste and flowers he should honour them with water with the verse ²⁶⁸ 'yā divyā' (vide ṇ 985). After taking leave of the Vaiśvadeva brāhmaṇas that have been honoured with arghya he should begin the pitṛ yajña. He should prepare seats with darbhas on them, worship three vessels, place pavitras on them and pour water in them with 'śam no devīr' (Rg. X. 9 4), should cast sesamum grains in them with 'tilosi' and then put in them sandalwood and flowerṣ (Then verses 147–152 speak about the vessels to be employed). He then should announce the names and gotra of his ancestors and give darbhas in the hands of the brāhmaṇaṣ He should then request brāhmaṇas with the words 'I shall invite the pitṛs' and when they reply 'let it be so' he should invoke the pitṛs with the two verses 'uśāntas tvā' (Rg. X. 16.12) and 'ā yantu' (Vāj. S. 19.58). Then, having offered arghya to the brāhmaṇas (representing the pitṛs) with. 'yā divyā' (vide ṇ 985), having given them sandalwood paste and the other things including garment as the last, he should collect the remainder of the water (in the arghya vessels) into the vessel meant for the father and should keep aside the latter to the north with its pitṛs'. Then he should begin to serve various kinds of food after bringing the utensils in which the food was cooked and holding them with both handṣ (Verses 157–165 speak of the various foods to be offered and the periods of gratification caused thereby to the pitṛs). While the brāhmaṇas are engaged in eating he should recite the Vedic hymns ²⁶⁹ referring to The Fathers, all the Purāṇas, various eulogies of Brahmā, Viṣṇu, the Sun, Rudra and the Vedic hymns addressed to Indra, Rudra and Soma and the Pāvamānī verses, the Sāmans called Bṛhat, Rathantara and Jyestha Sāman, the chapter on Śānti rites (propitiatory rites for removing evil events or prognostica- tions), the Madhubrāhmaṇa, the Maṇḍala Brāhmaṇa and what- ever else gives pleasure to the brāhmaṇas and the performer, and the Mahābhārata also should be recited, as it is very dear to the pitṛṣ After the brāhmaṇas have finished their dinner the performer should collect together in a lump portions from all kinds of food, put water over them and spread ²⁶⁹ it (on the ground over darbhas) in front of the plates of the dining brāhmaṇas and should say ²⁷² 'May those persons in our

These verses of the पञ्चपुराण about what it is to be repeated occur in मत्स्य- पुराण also (17.37-39). The राशीलमन्त्रs are five verses (Rg IV. 4 1-5=Vā). S. XIII. 13=Tai S. V. I. 2.14). हेमाद्रि (भा pp. 1069-1073) first sets out the texts mentioned by मनु, विष्णुधर्मसूत्र and the पुराणs, then gives the vedic texts to be repeated by the respective followers of the four Vedaṣ Ultimately Hemādri and Śr. P. say that if a man does not know much he should engage in गायत्रीजप. family that were cremated or not cremated be gratified by the food offered on the ground and being gratified may they attain the highest world (or bliss)! May this food offered on the ground for the gratification of those that have neither father nor mother nor relative nor any other friend and have no food (offered by any one else in śrāddha) proceed for union with them wherever it may have to go! The remainder of the food cooked for śrāddha and food spread on the ground are the lot (or share) of those that died without the saṁskāras (caula, upanayana and the like) being performed on them, that abandoned their gurus and of (unmarried) women of the family. Finding that the brāhmaṇas are satisfied (by the dinner) he should give water once in the hand of each brāhmaṇa, should place on the ground smeared with cow's dung and urine darbhas with their ends turned to the south and place on them pindas made from all kinds of foods (cooked for the śrāddha dinner) following the method employed in Piṇḍaputryajña after washing them with water. He should then utter the names and gotra (of the ancestors to whom the pindas are to be offered) and should offer flowers and the rest and should again wash them (pindas). He should perambulate the pindas thrice holding darbhas in his hand and he should light lamps and offer flowers for the pindaṣ When the brāhmaṇas sip water after eating the dinner, he should himself sip water and give water once to each of the brāhmaṇas and flowers and akṣatas and then akṣayyodaka with sesamum grainṣ He should then make according to his means presents (to the brāhmaṇas) of cows, land, gold, clothes, splendid beds and whatever else was liked by the brāhmaṇas or by the performer himself or his father. He should not be stingy in his presentṣ Then he should request the brāhmaṇas to say 'svadhā' and they should do so. Then he should request the brāhmaṇas to pronounce the following benedictions and should receive them from them while he faces the east. They are 'May the pitṛs be kind (not dreadful) to us'; the brāhmaṇas should say 'let it be so'; 'May our family increase'; they should say 'so be it'; 'May donors in my family prosper and also (the study of) the Vedas and progeny and may these benedictions come out true!'; they should respond 'let it be so'. He should then remove the piṇḍas and request the brāhmaṇas to utter the word 'svasti' and they should do so. The remains of the food eaten by the brāhmaṇas remain (unremoved or unwiped) till the brāhmaṇas are dismissed; then he should perform the (usual) daily rites Vaiśvadeva, balihoma²⁷⁴ &c. The remnants of food that lie on the ground are the share of the group of slaves that were straight-forward and not roguish (dishonest or shirkers). The performer holding a vessel full of water and muttering the verse 'vāje vāje' (Ṛg. VII. 38 8, Vāj. S. IX. 18, Tai. S I. 7. 8. 2) should touch the brāhmaṇas with the tip of kusaś and dismiss theṃ He should follow them out of his house for eight paces, should circumambulate them, should then return with his relatives, sons and wife, should then perform the daily Vaiśvadeva and balihoma. Then after Vaiśvadeva he should together with his relatives, sons, guests and servants partake of the food that remains in the cooking pots after what was eaten by the brāhmaṇaṣ

It should be noticed how closely the Padmapurāṇa follows the procedure (including the mantras) contained in Yājñavalkya. What procedure the author of a Purāṇa follows depends upon his learning and the sūtra that he studieḍ For example, the Viśṇudharmottara I.140 appears to rely on the Āp. gṛ. and the Āp. M. P. (II. 19-20), since I. 140. 12 refers to Āp. M. P. II. 19.1, I. 140. 29-30 to Āp. M. P. II. 19. 14-16, I. 140. 35 to Āp. M. P. II. 20. 1. Similarly, Skanda (VI 224 3-51) closely follows Āśv. gṛ and Yāj.

Owing to the difference in details of śrāddha in the several gṛhyasūtras, the smṛtis and the purāṇas, an important question arises whether a person should perform a śrāddha rite only in accordance with the gṛhyasūtra of his own Veda or Śākha or whether he may perform it after the inclusion (upasaṁhāra) of The several items found in other sūtras and smṛtis though not included in the kalpa or gṛhya sūtra of his own Śākha. This topic is discussed at great length by Hemādri (on śrāddha ) pp. 748-759 and briefly by Medhātithi on Manu II, 29 and XI, 216, by the Mit on Yaj. III 325, Aparārka p. 1053 and otherṣ Those who are for strictly following the details in one’s own sūtra alone argue as follows : If one were at liberty to include details other than those contained in one’s own sūtra, the order of the details ( krama ) given in one’s sūtra and the time specified for each detail would be interfered with Besides, if the addition of details were permissible, one would be liable to the charge of giving up the usages of one’s own family handed down for generationṣ These objectors rely upon such passages as that of the Viṣṇudharmottara which states ‘He who violating ( the dictates of ) his own sūtra acts according to a sūtra meant for others, treats thereby his own sage ( the author of his sūtra ) as unauthoritative and incurs ( the blame of ) doing what is im proper.'²⁷⁵ The smṛtis that contain additional details may be meant for those men who have no kalpa or gṛhya sūtra of their own or they may be useful for śūdraṣ

Those who espouse the view that as far as possible all details found in several gṛhyasūtras and smṛtis on one rite should be included by every one rely mainly on Jaimini II 4, 8-33 which is called ‘śākhāntarādhikaraṇanyāya’ or ‘sarvaśākhāpratyaya nyāya’. The principal sūtra is Jai. II, 4. 9.²⁷⁶ It is established in this sūtra that the prayojana (purpose) or phala (reward to be secured) of the rite is the same in different sūtras and smṛtis For example, the rewards of śrāddha are stated to be the same in all sūtras and smṛtis (vide notes 787-790 above); then the dravya (materials) and the deity are the same (in Pūrvana śrāddha the deities are the paternal ancestors and the materials, viz. kuśas, tilas, vessels, foods &c. are the same in all works). The effort that is enjoined (the vidhi) is the same and the name (Pūrvāśrāddha, Ekoddiṣṭa śrāddha &c.) is the same. Therefore, on account of these various signs one easily recognizes that the same rite is being dealt with by all sūtras, even if many of them differ in detailṣ It cannot be said that smṛtis will be useful for those who have no sūtras of their owṇ Each man of the first three varṇas is attached to some sūtra or other by the tradition of his family or caste. Similarly, the smṛtis cannot be held to be meant for śūdras alone, since the smṛtis mainly deal with upanayana, the study of the Vedas, agnihotra and other matters with which a śūdra has no concerṇ Similarly, the objection that if details were allowed to be inserted from other sūtras and smṛtis the krama and kāla prescribed in one’s sūtra might have to be set aside, the reply is contained in Jai. I. 3. 5-7 (explained at great length in H. of Dh. vol. III, pp. 841-848)²⁷⁷ The śruti says ‘after getting ready a bundle of kuśa grass he prepares the vedi (altar)’. Here a certain order of acts is laid dowṇ If after a bundle of kuśas is got ready, the man has a sneeze, he has to sip water (perform ācamana) immediately as laid down by Manu V. 145 and Vaṣ III. 38 before he prepares the vedi. So the objector says the krama will be interfered with. The reply is that the sequence (krama) is only a characteristic of the items in the śruti passage, that all that is meant is that the making of the altar follows the getting ready of a kuśa bundle, but that it is not meant that the making of the vedi should follow immediately after the bundle is got ready. Therefore, the conclusion is that whatever detail is not in conflict with one’s own śākhā or sūtra may be included in the rite one is about to perform, but if there is a direct conflict, then one should stick to one’s own sūtra. As observed by Kātyāyana ‘whatever is declared, whether in great detail or in brief, in one’s own gṛhyasūtra about a rite, if he performs that much, it may be taken that he has done all that is required of him; but what is not handed down in one’s śākhā (or sūtra) but is contained in another śākhā and is not in conflict with one’s own śākhā, should be performed by the learned, as in the case of agnihotra and the like,³⁵² The first verse of Kātyāyana may be explained as applying where one's śākhā or sūtra deals with a matter without requiring any addition or as the next best course where one is not able to supplement one's sūtra owing to some unseen cause or owing to human difficultieṣ The Saṁgraha says that where different items of the śrāddha rite are declared to be performed at different times and there is no agreement among the sages, one should follow one's gṛhya-sūtra, but where one's gṛhyasūtra is silent as to a certain item or as to the stage when it is to be performed, there is an option and one may follow the opinion of some sage as to that iteṃ¹⁰¹⁴ It appears that even the ancient gṛhya sūtras exhibit tendencies that led to the sarvaśākhā-pratyaya-nyāya e. g. Āśv. gṛ. (q. in n 966) employs several passages (such as ‘Tilosi’, ‘Yā divyā,’ which do not occur in the Ṛgveda.)

It is owing to this maxim of ‘ sarvaśākhā-pratyayanayāya’ that medieval digests go on heaping up details from all smṛtis and purāṇas in their descriptions of the several śrāddhas, the procedures of which were not originally very extensive.

The Kūrmapurāṇa ¹⁰¹⁵ provides that the performer should before noon time is past bring to his house the invited brāhmaṇas who have shaved themselves and pared their nails, should offer them materials for brushing the teeth and request them to sit down on separate seats, then give them oil and water for bathing. It will be seen that here the purāṇa has added several details that were not provided for by the Aśv. gr. (ṇ 966), Manu (III. 208 ), Yāj. (I. 226) and even by some of the purāṇas such as the Varāha 14. 8, which begin the procedure with seat- ing the brāhmaṇas in the afternoon on seats after welcoming theṃ Many more examples could be given, but that attempt is not made owing to considerations of space.

Before proceeding to give some idea as to how the pārvaṇa- śrāddha was dealt with in medieval and modern times, observa- tions must be made on several relevant matters, on which there is a difference of views or which are important in a general way.

When the invited brāhmaṇas come after noon, it is pro- vided in some of the purāṇas that two maṇḍalas should be made in front of the performer's residence for receiving the brāh- maṇaṣ For example, the Nāradapurāṇa states²⁷⁸ 'the mandala for a brāhmaṇa performer should be square (four cornered) in size, for a kṣatriya triangular, circular for a vaiśya and for a śūdra mere sprinkling of the ground with water is enough.' The maṇḍalas should be made on ground smeared with cowdung and with water mixed with cow's urine. Of the two maṇḍalas one should be on the northern side sloping towards the north and the other on the southern side sloping towards the south. On the northern maṇḍala kuśas with points towards the east should be placed along with akṣata (unbroken or whole) grains and on sesamum grainṣ The northern maṇḍala should generally be two cubits on each side while the southern one should be four cubits on each side. The brāhmaṇa or brāhmaṇas that repre- sent the Viśvedevāḥ should be honoured in the northern maṇḍala first by the performer himself with water for washing their feet after bending his right knee and the brāhmaṇas representing the pitṛs should be then honoured in the southern maṇḍala with water for washing the feet (hence called pādya) after bending his left knee. The mantra at the time of offering pādya is 'Śan V] no devir' Rg. X. 9. 4).²⁷⁹ After the mantra is recited he should give the water to the Vaiśvadeva brāhmaṇas and to the pitrya brāhmaṇas as noted below (in ṇ1017). After the pādya water is offered the brāhmaṇas should come in front of the mandalas and sip water ( take ācamana ).

The ancient sūtras and smṛtis like those of Manu and Yāj. (I. 229) say generally that the Viśvedevāh are to be invoked, but some of the later smṛtis (such as Prajāpati, verses 179-190) and purāṇas contain verses enumerating ten names of Viśvedevās and assign two each (out of the ten) to five classes of śrāddhas They say: ²⁸⁰ “in śrāddha performed in an iṣṭi the Viśvedevas are Kratu and Dakṣa, in a Nāndimukha śrāddha they are Vasu and Satya, in Kāmyaśrāddha Dhuri and Locana, in naimittika śrāddha Kāla and Kāma and in Pārvana-śrāddha Purūravas and Ārdrava'. According to the Sṃ C. and Hemādri a seat (āsana) is to be given to the Vaiśvadeva brāhmaṇas and invocations are to be made in the several śrāddhas after taking the names enumerated above. The Mit on Yāj I, 229, Hemādri (on śrāddha p. 1225) and other digests state that the mantras for invoking the Viśvedevas in Pārvana-śrāddha are two viz. 'Viśvedevāsa āgata' (Rg. II. 41. 13) and 'āgacchanta mahābhāgā' (q. above in note 984), while the Sṃ C. (p. 444) prescribes an additional mantra 'viśve devāh śrunuta' (Rg. VI. 52. 13).

The general rule is that the Vaiśvadeva brāhmaṇas are to be seated facing the east and the pitrya brāhmaṇas facing the north (Yāj. I. 228, Varāha 14. 11), but there were at least five differing views about the directions which the brāhmaṇas were to face as Hemādri (on śrāddha p. 1200) points out. It is further pointed out by Hemādri and others (like Yāj. I. 247) that in all items in the procedure of śrāddha the Vaiśvadevika brāhmaṇas have precedence except in the matter of washing the hand smeared with the remains of food and the final dismissal of the brāhmaṇas at the end of the śrāddha.²⁸¹ It may be noted that in southern and western India brāhmaṇas invited at śrāddha are worshipped, while in Bengal it is the effigy made with darbhas (darbhabatu) that is worshipped as shown by the late M. M. Haraprasad Shastri (Catalogue of Msṣ vol. III p. 406). The Śrāddha-tattva (folio 2b) of Raghunandana provides for the same: 'purūravā-mādravaso viśvesam devānām pūrvana-śrāddham kuśamayabrāhmaṇane karisye iti procchet.'

In the Vāyupurāṇa³⁵³ it is stated that the following mantra should be repeated thrice at the beginning and end of a śrāddha and at the time of offering piṇḍas; on repeating it the pitrs come quickly to the śrāddha and rākṣasas run away and that the mantra saves the pitrs in all the three worldṣ The mantra is 'Perpetual adoration to the gods, to pitrs and to the great Yogins, to svadhā, to svāhā'. The Sm C (on śrāddha p. 441) states that the mantra should be repeated after the brāhmaṇas come and sit down and before kuśas are placed on the seats of the brāhmaṇaṣ This mantra occurs also in Brahmapurāṇa 220. 143, Brahmāṇḍa (Upodghātāpāda 11. 22), Viṣṇudharmottara I. 140. 68–70 and is styled ‘saptārcis’ by the last two and is said to be equal to Aśvamedha.

A certain order of words about referring to the ancestors in offering a seat, offering kuśas on seat, and arghya is laid down by Bṛhaspati,²⁸³ some of the purāṇas and the digestṣ As almost in every case there are different views here also. Bṛhaspati says: ‘when giving a seat, when offering arghya, or pindas, in offering ablutions of water on pindas, the performer has to declare his relation to each of the ancestors, the names and gotras of the ancestors and also the form in which each of the ancestors is to be contemplated (viz as Vasu, Rudra, Āditya respectively). It is further laid down that the genitive is to be employed for the ancestor’s name in offering a seat (to the pitrya brāhmaṇa) and akṣayyodaka, the objective in invoking the pitṛs, the dative in offering food, the vocative in other caseṣ

It is laid down that the performer has to take ācamana (sip water) in śrāddha rite six times viz., at the commencement of śrāddha, when washing the feet of invited brāhmaṇas, in wor- shipping them, in making the vikira, in offering pindas and at the end of the śrāddha.²⁸⁴ An important question which exercised the minds of many mediæval writers was 'who was the real recipient (sampradāna)²⁸⁵ of the offerings made in śrāddha, whether the brāhmaṇas or the pitṛs'. Relying on the words of the Aśv. gr. IV, 8.1 (quoted above in ṇ 966 'etasmin kāle ... dānam) and passages of the purāṇas such as the Varāha (13. 51) 'vibhāve sati viprebhyo asmān uddiśya dāsyati', the Mahārṇavaprakāśa, Harihara and some others held that brāhmaṇas were the recipients, while others relying on indications furnished by śruti passages like Vāj. S. 19. 36 (akṣan pitaraḥ amīmadanta pitaraḥ) and such formulas as 'pīar-etat te arghyam' or 'etadiak pitaro vāsaḥ,' hold that the real recipients intended were the pitṛs, but, as the pitṛs had gone to another world and could not be bodily present to receive the gifts of such things as sandlewood paste, flowers and clothes, the latter were only handed over or assigned to the brāhmaṇas who were for the moment contemplated as not different from the pitṛṣ²⁸⁶ Vide Sṃ C. ( śrāddha pp. 447-449 ), Śr. Pr. pp. 30-31 for a discussion of these two view-pointṣ It should, however, be noted that the water given to the brāhmaṇas and the dakṣiṇā given to them were only meant for the brāhmaṇas, the former for purification and the latter for the inexhaustible merit that dakṣiṇā to brāhmaṇas conferreḍ

It is to be noted that in the invocation (āvāhana) of the pitṛs there is a divergence of views as to the mantras to be employed and also as to the stage when it is to be made. Hemādri (śrāddha, pp. 1254–56) states that there were five different views on the latter point, the three most important of which were that āvāhana should come before giving darbhas as āsana on the left side of the seats of the pitṛya brāhmaṇas or after giving such darbhas or after agnaukaraṇa. As regards the former (viz. the mantras), Yāj. (I 232–233), the Brahmāṇḍa-purāṇa and several others say that the invocation mantra is ' uṣantas-tvā ' (Rg. X 16. 12, Vāj. S 19 70, Tai S II, 6, 12. 1) and after the āvāhana the performer should perform japa of the verse ' ā yantu nah ' (Vaj. S. 19. 58). The Visṇudharma-sūtra²⁸⁷ (73. 10–12) states 'The performer after having received permission from the brāhmaṇas should invite the Maneṣ Having driven away the Yātudhānas (demons) by strewing grains of sesamum and by reciting the two mantras (the first of which begins with 'may the Asuras go away') he should invite the Manes with the four mantras 'come near, ye Manes', 'conduct them here, O Agni!', 'May my (ancestors) come near', 'this is your (share), O Manes'. Hemādri (śrāddha pp. 1260-1267) points out how the mantras differ according to different writerṣ

There is a great deal of discussion about agnaukarana mentioned in Yaj. I. 236-237. The Mit points out that if a man has kept śrauta fires by the sarvādhāna method then in the pārvaṇa-śrāddha that he offers after piṇḍapitṛyajña he offers homa in the Dakṣiṇāgni, as he has no aupāsana (i. e. gṛhya) fire and supports this by quoting a passage which occurs in the Viṣṇudharmottara-purāṇa.²⁸⁸ But if a man consecrates the śrauta fires by the ardhadhāna²⁸⁹ method, then he has to offer pārvaṇa homa in that fire and one who is without śrauta fires and has kept up only aupāsana fire has to offer homa in that fire. One who has neither the śrauta fires nor the gṛhya fire offers it in the brāhmaṇa's hand only. The Mit. relies on Manu III. 212 and on two verses from a gṛhya and comes to the conclusion that one who has consecrated śrauta fires performs homa in dakṣina fire in the case of Anvastakya śrāddha, the śrāddha on the day previous to Aṣṭakā, the śrāddha performed in the dark half of each month on some day from the 5th and in the case of pārvaṇa-śrāddha, but he performs, in the case of kūmya, abhyudayika, Ekoddiṣṭa and Aṣṭakā śrāddhas, homa only on the pitrya brāhmaṇa's hand; while for one who has kept no sacred fire the homa is to be made only in the pitrya brāhmaṇa's hanḍ Vide Hemādri (śrāddha pp. 1328-1344), Balambhaṭṭi (on ācāra p. 518). The Todarānanda (śrāddha saukhya) following Manu III. 282 states that one who is an Agnihotrin cannot perform a pārvaṇa-śrāddha on any day except on darśa (i. e. on amāvāsya).

Another important question on which there is great diver- gence concerns the number of āhutis to be offered in agnau- karaṇa, the deities to whom the homa was to be offered, the order in which the deities were to be named and the form of words to be useḍ On these matters there appears to have been divergent views from very ancient timeṣ According to the Śat. Br. II. 4. 2. 12-13 the āhutis were only ²⁹⁰ two, they were offered to Agni and Soma in that order and the word svāhā was used at the enḍ According to the Tai. Br I 3. 10. 2-3 ²⁹¹ the āhutis were three, they were to be offered to Soma, Agni and to Yama in that order and the formula ended with 'svadhā namaḥ' (and not with 'svāhā'). It is therefore that a verse of Katyā- yana ²⁹² says “whether to employ the word 'svāhā' or the words 'svadhā namaḥ', whether and when to wear the sacred chord in the yajñopavīta form or prācīnāvīta form and what was to be the number of āhutis—all these have to be understood from one's own sūtra.” The difference of views which is noticed as far back as the Brāhmaṇas persists in the sūtras, smṛtis, purāṇas and is briefly indicated here. The Āp. Gr. S. (quoted above in ṇ 981) speaks of thirteen āhutis, seven with food and six with clarified butter. Two āhutis only are mentioned by Āśv. Śrauta II. 6. 12 (quoted in note 974), Āśv. gr. IV. 7. 20, Śankha-Likhita,²⁹³ Kāthaka-grhya, Nārada-purāṇa (pūrvārdha 28. 48) and Markandeya-purāṇa. Three āhutis are mentioned by most of the smṛtis and purāṇas, such as Banḍ Dh. S. II. 14. 7,²⁹⁴ Śāṇ Śrauta IV. 3 and gṛhya IV. 1. 13, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 73. 12, Manu III. 211, Varāhapurāṇa²⁹⁵ (14. 21-22), Brahmāṇḍa-purāṇa (Upod-ghātapāda 11. 93-94), Viṣṇudharmottara I. 140. 19. It is here that various combinations of the order of the deities and of the words 'svāhā' and 'svadhā' occur. The texts of a few works are cited below for illustratioṇ Some give the order as 'Soma accom-panied by the pitṛs, Agni the carrier of havya, Yama Aṅgiras;' while others give it as 'Agni the carrier of havya, Soma accompanied by the pitṛs, Yama Vaivasvata &c.' It is further provided that the āhutis to Agni is made to the southern side of the fire, to Soma on the northern part of it and in the middle of the two sides to Vaivasvata (Yama).²⁹⁶

Various rules of etiquette about serving food, about the way brāhmaṇas are to eat and related matters have been laid down from ancient times and are observed even now. The Sṃ C (p. 465-470), Hemādri (śrāddha pp. 1367-1384), the Śr. Pr. pp. 116-123 and other digests contain elaborate rules on these matterṣ Yāj. I. 237 prescribes that what remains after offering homa should be served in the plates meant for the brāhmaṇas representing the Fathers and the plates should preferably be

side dishes viz. broths, vegetables, milk, curds, ghee and honey on the ground ( and not on a wooden stool or the like ). The vessels placed on the ground should contain various kinds of food ( such as sweetmeats, pāyasa ), fruits and roots, delicious flesh, spiced or perfumed drinkṣ Having brought near the brāhmaṇas all the vessels containing food, he should serve it in the plates declaring the characteristic of each kind of food ( saying 'this is sweet, this is sour' &c.). The performer while serving should not shed tears ( remembering his ancestors ), he should not become angry, should not utter falsehood, he should not touch the ( vessel containing ) food with his foot and should not serve food with a violent jerk. Whatever is liked by the brāhmaṇas should be served to them without any grumbling and he should talk about Brahma ( or about Vedic riddles ), because that is agreeable to the pitṛṣ The performer himself, being pleased, should ( by his sweet speech ) gladden the brāhmaṇas, should make them partake of food without hurry, and should urge them on frequently ( to take more food ) by declaring the good points of the various items of fooḍ All food should be steaming hot and the brāhmaṇas should partake of it silently and should not themselves speak of the good points of the food even when questioned by the performer. When the food is hot, when the brāhmaṇas eat in silence and when the good qualities of the food are not declared by the brāhmaṇas, the Fathers partake of it. When a brāhmaṇa ( at a śrāddha dinner ) partakes of food, having his head covered with a garment ( a turban &c ) or facing the south or having his sandals on, evil spirits partake of the food ( and not the Fathers ).' As early as Gaut., it is provided that the food for the brāhmaṇas should be of the highest sort and should be enriched by condiments and flavoureḍ

Some of the other rules are : The Prajāpati-smṛti ( verses 57-62 ) states who should cook the food for the śrāddha dinner. The wife, any fortunate ( or handsome ) woman of the performer's gotra whose husband is living and who has a son or brother and is devoted to waiting upon her elders, the performer's teacher's wife, his maternal uncle's wife, paternal or maternal aunt, his sister, his daughter or daughter-in-law, all of them having their husbands alive, should engage in the cooking of the food for śrāddha. Women of good family, who have a large progeny, whose husbands are alive and who are about 50 years old or these women if they have become widows, and the wife of one's paternal uncle or brother, one's mothers ( natural or stop-mothers) and the mothers of one's father may cook the śrāddha food and also a woman of the same gotra who is mild by temper. In the Anuśāsana parva (92,15) it is stated that a woman belonging to a gotra other than that of the deceased should not be employed for cooking śrāddha fooḍ One's brother, paternal uncle, brother's son, sister's son, one's son, pupil, one's daughter's son or daughter's husband may also engage in cook- ing the śrāddha food, but not a woman who wears a white and wet garment, who has let her hair loose, who does not wear a bodice, who is ill or who has bathed her heaḍ Before the brāhmaṇas begin to eat, the food should be first served in the plates for the Vaiśvadeva brāhmaṇas and then in those of the pitrya brāhmaṇas ( Viṣṇu Dh S. 73 13-14), but once the brāhmaṇas have begun to eat there is no such precedence, what- ever each brāhmaṇa may be noted as requiring should be served to him (as indicated by Manu III. 231). The performer of the śrāddha when serving food to the brāhmaṇas (including pitrya) wears his sacred thread in the upavīta forṃ Though it is said that the food should be hot, that does not apply to such eatables as curds, fruits and roots and flavoured²⁹⁸ drinks (as Sankha XIV.13 and Skandapurāṇa say ). As Hemādri (śrāddha p. 1371) points out, the serving of food in a śrāddha rite should be done with the right hand supported by the left; besides, nothing should be served with the bare hand or with a single hand, but with a wooden ladle or other utensil (but not an iron one). All cooked food, all sidē dishes and ghee should be served with a ladle (and not with the bare hand) but not water or eatables like laḍḍuṣ No salt was to be directly served (Viṣṇu Dh S, 79. 12 ). In Kātyāyana's Śrāddha-sūtra it is provided²⁹⁹ "The food that remains after agnaukarana should be served in the plates of the pitrya brāhmaṇas and the performer should touch each plate for those brāhmaṇas after repeating the mantra 'the earth is thy vessel, the sky is the cover, I offer nectar in the brāhmaṇa's nectar-like mouth; svāhā'. Then the performer plunges the (right) thumb of the pitṛya brāhmaṇa in the food (the remains of the homa in fire) with the ṛk or yajus addressed to Viṣṇu; and after scattering sesamum grains all round the place where the dinner is to go on with the mantra '(the asuras and rākṣasas) are struck and driven away' he (the performer) should serve hot food very much liked (by the departed or by the brāhmaṇas )”. Yaj. I. 238 briefly refers (as translated above) to the mantras and the item of plunging the thumb of the brāhmaṇas in the food; and so does the Bauḍ Dh. S. also (II. 8. 15-16). The Kālikā-purāṇa prescribes³⁰⁰ that the thumb of the brāhmaṇa should be moved about in the food covered with ghee and honey with the mantra ‘the earth is thy vessel &c. because Viṣṇu in the form of the thumb protects food meant for sacrifices to gods and maneṣ The Bauḍ Pitṛmedhasūtra provides that while plunging the thumb of the brāhmaṇa in the food served it should be so arranged that the nail of the thumb is not smeared with food, ³⁰¹ Vasiṣṭha provides that the brāhmaṇas eating śrāddha food should always hold the plate from which they are eating with (the left) hand till the end of the dinner. Śańkha-Likhita provide ³⁰² that brāhmaṇas (eating śrāddha food ) should not declare the good or bad points of the food served, should not say what is untrue, should not praise each other, nor should they say ‘there is plenty of food and drink (and so do not serve more food), except by signs made with the hanḍ' Whatever is offered in a brāhmaṇa's hand (by way of agnaukarana ) and whatever food is placed in the plates should be mixed up and eateṇ Hemādri quotes passages from the Maitrāyaṇiya-sūtra and from the Skandapurāṇa setting out the mantras wherewith certain articles were to be served; e. g. the Skandapurāṇa says that pāyasa should be served with the verse ‘namo vah pitaro' (Vaj. S. III. 32, Tai. S. III. 2, 5. 5), clarified butter with the mantra ‘Tejosi śukram', curds with the mantra ‘dadikravno' (Rg. IV. 39. 6, Vaj. S. 23. 32, Tai. S. 1, 5. 11. 4). Ap Dh. S. (II. 8, 18. 11) provides that the leavings of a śrāddha dinner should not be given to one who is inferior to the invited brāhmaṇas in qualities and Manu III. 249 states that the man who after eating śrāddha dinner gives the leavings to a śūdra falls in the Kālasūtra Hell.

The Matsyapurāṇa and some other works provide that the brāhmaṇas should pronounce blessings on the performer (who faces the east) after they have sipped water and have been given water, flowers and akṣata grainṣ The performer prays 'May our Fathers be not terrible (i. e. be kind) to uṣ' The brāhmaṇas reply 'let it be so The performer prays 'May our family grow', 'May donors increase in our family and also food', 'May these blessings turn out to be true'. To all these the brāhmaṇas reply after each one of the prayers ³⁰³ 'May it be so'. There are rules about the time when the leavings or particles of food in the plates of the brāhmaṇas that ate the dinner should be removed or swept away Vaṣ (XI. 21–22) and the Kūrma-purāṇa provide that the leavings of food should not be removed till the Sun sets, since streams of nectar flow from them, which are drunk by the (spirits of) those departed persons for whom no water was offereḍ Manu III. 265 (which is the same as Matsya 17 56 and Padma, Sṛṣṭikhanda 9,185) provides another rule that the leavings of the food in the plates may remain where they are till the brāhmaṇas are dismissed and depart. Hemādri (śrāddha, p. 1512)³⁰⁴ therefore provides that if the per- former has another house the leavings may not be removed till sunset, but if he has only one house, they may be removed after the brāhmaṇas have gone away (vide Yāj I. 257, Matsya 17.56). It is further provided by Bṛhaspati³⁰⁵ that the plates should not be removed before the brāhmaṇas pronounce the word ‘svasti’, and Jatūkarṇya³⁰⁶ and the Skandapurāṇa say that the plates and the leavings should be removed by the performer himself or by his pupil or son, but not by women nor by a child nor by one who is not of the same caste Manu III 258 provides that, after the brāhmaṇas have left, the performer should look at the south and pray to the pitṛs for certain blessings contained in Manu III. 259 which are the same as Yāj I 246 translated above (vide p. 447.), Viṣṇu Dh. S 73. 28, Matsya 16. 49-50, The Āp. gr. 209 (q. in note 981), Āp Dh. S II 7. 17. 16, Manu III. 264, Yāj. I. 249 provide that the performer should partake of the remainder of the food cooked for the śrāddha along with his wife, paternal and maternal relatives after recit- ing (according to Haradatta) the Yajusa mantra (Āp. M. P. II. 20.26) which means ‘entering the life breath I offer nectar; my soul is centred in Brahman for the sake of immortality.’ The Āp. gr. and Āp. Dh. S. provide³⁰⁷ that the performer must eat at least a morsel of the food left after serving to the brāhmaṇaṣ Vyāsa and Devala prescribe that on the day of śrāddha the per- former must not observe a fast (even if he usually does so as on Ekādaśī or Śivarātra). A way out was provided by the Bra- hmavaivarta-purāṇa by recommending that the performer should merely smell the remnants of the śrāddha fooḍ Vide Homādri (śrāddha, pp. 1519-1521) for the discussioṇ Hemādri (p. 1485) refers to the practice (observed even now) that after the performer receives the blessings referred to above, his son, grandson and the like should offer adoration to the devatās in the form of pindaṣ The brāhmaṇas should praise the good characteristics of the food served at the end of the śrāddha ceremony.³⁰⁸ The brāhmaṇas should not get up from the dinner, carelessly leaving remnants of food in their plates, but they may leave in the plates a little food except milk, curds, honey or barley flour.³⁰⁹

There were several views as to the exact stage at which the offerings of pindas were to be made. According to Śāṇ Gr. IV. 1.9., Āśv. gr. IV. 8. 12,³¹⁰ Śankha 14. 11, Manu III. 260-261, Yāj. I 242 and several other works, the performer offers the lumps of boiled rice after the brāhmaṇas have finished eating their dinner. The pindas are made with boiled rice mixed with sesame and are placed on darbhas on a clean spot and at a distance of about one aratni from³¹¹ the plates in which the brāhmaṇas ate and the performer faces the south. Here again there are two opinions, one being that pindas were to be offered before the brāhmaṇas sip water (perform ācamana) after dinner (e. g. Āśv. gr. IV. 8. 12-13, Śrāddha-sūtra of Kātyāyana, kaṇḍikā 3), while others hold that they were to be offered after the brāhmaṇas have rinsed their mouth and taken ācamana. Another view referred to as the view of some by Śāṇ gr. IV. 1. 10 and Manu III. 261 was that pindas were to be offered to the ancestors first after honouring the invited brāhmaṇas or after agnaukarana and then the brāhmaṇas were to partake of the dinner. The Brahmāṇḍapurāṇa ³¹² emphatically asserts that this is the correct position as stated by Bṛhaspati. The Viṣṇu Dh. S. (73 15-24) provides that the pindas are to be offered to the ancestors while the brāhmaṇas are actually eating. A fourth view is that of the Āp. gr. 24,9, Hir gr. (II, 12.2-3) which state that the former³¹³ should, after the brāhmaṇas have eaten and gone away and he has followed and circumambulated them, offer pindaṣ Owing to this conflict of views Hemādri (quoting smṛti) and the Madanapārijāta (p 600) say that each one should follow the procedure laid down in his own śākhā ³¹⁴ Hemādri adds that those in whose gṛhyasūtra no special time is mentioned for pindadāna should follow the view that pindas are to be offered after the brāhmaṇas have partaken of the dinner and sipped water. The Śr. P. (p. 247) endorses this view.³¹⁵ The pindas were to be deposited on bunches of (25) darbhas for each pinda. Aparārka on Yāj. I, 24 states that in all cases without exception pindas were to be offered near the plates from which the brāhmaṇas took their meals, while Hemādri who relies on Kātyāyana's word ‘ucchistasannidhau' says that where the performer is an āhitāgni the pindas were to be offered near his sacred fire, but when a performer had not kept the sacred fires pindas were to be offered near the plates from which brāhmaṇas ate the śrāddha fooḍ The Śrāddhassāra (p 163) quotes Atri to the effect that pindas should be offered at a distance of three aratnis from where the brāhmaṇas ate the śrāddha dinner and that in such śrāddhas as Navaśrāddhas Vaiśvadeva is to be performed before pindadāna and that it is to be performed after There is another conflict of views as regards the ancestors to whom pindas are to be offered at the śrāddha on amāvasya. Most of the ancient Vedic works refer only to the three paternal ancestors as the devatās of the Pārvaṇa-śrāddha and not to any other relativeṣ The three paternal ancestors are separately the devatās of śrāddha and not cumulatively, as indicated by the Āśv. Śrauta II. 6. 15 and Viṣṇu Dh S. 73 13-14. The important questions are whether the wives of the paternal ancestors, viz. the mother, the grandmother and the great-grandmother were associated with their husbands in ancient times and secondly, whether the three paternal ancestors of one's mother viz. the maternal grandfather, the maternal great-grandfather and the maternal great-great-grandfather were invoked together with their wives in the Pārvaṇa. The answer to both these questions so far as the Vedas and Brāhmaṇas are concerned is in the negative, Vide Tai. S. I. 8. 5.1, Tai. Br. I 3. 10, II. 6. 16, Vāj. S. 19 36-37, Śat. Br. II. 4. 2. 16, in all of which the only persons expressly named are the pitṛs and three paternal ancestorṣ It may be noted, however, that in Vāj S. 9. 19 (which is cited by Kātyāyana at the end of Śrāddhasūtra 3 as the mantra to be recited when following the brāhmaṇas that are dismissed) there is a clear reference to paternal ancestors and also to motherṣ Almost all sūtras also are silent as regards the invocation of the maternal ancestors in Pārvaṇa-śrāddha along with paternal oneṣ Vide ³¹⁶ Āśv. Śr.; Sudarśana on Āp. gr. VIII. 21. 2 states that the Sūtrakāra and Bhāsyakāra did not speak of Mātāmahaśrāddha as it is not obligatory for a daughter's son to offer it. The Śrāddhasūtra of Kātyāyana ³¹⁷ speaks of three pindas being made for the paternal ancestors and three for the mother's paternal ancestorṣ The Gobhilasmṛti provides ³¹⁸ that six pindas should be offered except in the Anvaṣṭakāśrāddha, the first śrāddha (on the 11th day), the sixteen śrāddhas and the yearly śrāddha for a deceased persoṇ Dhaumya ³¹⁹ prescribes that where the paternal ancestors are honoured (or fed) the maternal ancestors also should be certainly honoured without making any difference (between the two classes); if he makes a distinction the performer will go to Hell. The Viṣṇupurāṇa, ³²⁰ the Brahmāṇḍapurāṇa and the Varāhapurāṇa say that some hold that a śrāddha for maternal ancestors is to be performed separately while other sages hold that one śrāddha is to be offered at the same time to the paternal and maternal ancestorṣ Bṛhaspati (q. by Kalpataru on śrāddha p. 204) prescribes ³²¹ that one should offer pindas made from all food cooked for the śrāddha and mixed with honey and sesamum grains for both paternal and maternal ancestors according to the rules of one's gṛhyasūtra. The Varāhapurāṇa (14. 40-41) says that pitṛya brāhmaṇas should be dismissed first and then the daiva brāhmaṇas together with those for the mother's ancestors and that separate pindas were to be offered to the mother's paternal ancestors (14. 37). Some held the view that the offering of pindas to maternal ancestors was obligatory for the putrikā- putra ³²² (son of the appointed daughter) or for a daughter's son that inherited the wealth of his maternal grandfather. Bṛhat-Parāśara (chap. V. p. 153) mentions several views on this point. It seems probable that when the appointment of a daughter as a son became rare or went out of vogue the maternal ancestors came to be associated with the paternal ancestors in pārvana-śrāddha,

The question when the wives of ancestors became associated with the male ancestors cannot be solved satisfactorily. The pitāmahī is not mentioned in the extant Vedic Literature. But it is certain that the wives of male ancestors had come to be associated with their husbands in the sūtra perioḍ For example, the Hir. Gr. II 10 associates the mother, the paternal grandmother and the paternal great-grandmother with their respective husbands in the monthly śrāddha performed in the dark half. Similarly, the Bauḍ gr. II. 11.34 not only associates in the Astakā śrāddha the male maternal ancestors with the male paternal ancestors, but also their respective wiveṣ The Āp. M. P. ³²³ has mantras referring to the three male paternal ancestors as well as their wiveṣ The Śāṇ gr. (IV. 1,11) provides that behind the lumps for the paternal ancestors the per-former places the lumps for their wives, putting something between the two sets of pindas and the commentator explains that darbhas are placed between the two setṣ The Kauśika sūtra (68 12) also provides for the offering of pindas to the wives of male ancestors to the south of the pindas for male ancestorṣ The Aśv. gr. (II. 5. 4-5), while speaking of the Anvas-takya rite, refers to pindas to be offered to the wives of ances-tors with the addition of rum and the scum of boiled rice. The Vaikhānasa-smārta-sūtra IV. 7 (after describing the Pinda-pitryajña in IV. 5-6) notes that the difference between it and the ordinary monthly śrāddha is that in the latter pindas are offered to the wives of the pitṛs ³²⁴. Dr. Caland (in ‘Āhnencult’ p. 164) thinks that this inclusion of the women ancestors among those to whom pindas were to be offered was made by taking over from Anvastakya ceremonial described above. This conjecture does not look very probable. The Astakā rites existed from remote antiquity as shown above. If the offering of pindas to women ancestors were borrowed from the Anvastakya this item would have figured in all sūtras just as Aṣṭaka śrāddha doeṣ It is rather more probable that the extension to women was a natural growth in course of time. Some of the smṛtis emphasize the participation of the wives of paternal ancestors in the pārvaṇaśrāddha offeringṣ Śātātapa states ³²⁵: ‘In what is offered to the pitṛs after Sapiṇḍīkaraṇa, the mother is a participant everywhere. A śrāddha may be separately offered to the mother in the Anvaṣṭakā rites, in Vṛddhi-śrāddha, at Gayā and on the anniversary of the day of her death; but in other cases it is performed along with the husband’. It is stated by Bṛhaspati that the mother partakes of the śrāddha food along with her husband (i. e. the father of the performer); that the same rule applies to the paternal grandmother and the paternal great-grandmother ³²⁶. The Kalpataru ³²⁷ and others held that the wives of the paternal ancestors were not devatās in the pārvaṇa-śrāddha, but they only enjoyed the ethereal food which came to the pitṛs, while Hemādri and other southern writers held that the mother and other female ancestors were among the devatās of pārvaṇa-śrāddha, but not the step-mother. There was a divergence of views whether the words ‘mother’, ‘paternal grandmother’ and ‘paternal great-grandmother’ included the co-wives (sapatnīs) of these. Hemādri (on śrāddha pp. 97-104) has a long disquisition on this questioṇ According to one view the step-mother, the co-wife of the pitāmahī and the co-wife of the prapitāmahī would be included in

IV] the usage of the Tai. S. in this matter, the reason being³²⁸ that when the son offers a pinda to his father and employs the formula ‘this is thine and of those that follow thee’, he would be included among those that follow the father and be thus offering a pinda to himself, which is inauspiciouṣ It is provided by Gobhila-grhya³²⁹ that if he does not know the names of his ancestors he should put down the first pinda with the Formula ‘svadhā to the Fathers dwelling on the earth’, (he should put down) the 2nd pinda with the formula ‘svadhā to the fathers dwelling in the air’, the third with the formula ‘svadhā to the Fathers dwelling in heaven’ and should recite in a low voice the words ‘Here, O Fathers, gladden yourselves, show your vigour each according to his own part.’ Yama quoted by Kalpataru (on Śr. p 203), following Gobhila provides generally (whether the ancestors be known or not) that the first pinda should be offered to the father with the expression ‘prthivī’, the second to the grandfather in the aerial regions and the third to the paternal great-grandfather with the mantra ‘dyaur darvī’. The Viṣṇu Dh. S (73 17-19) has similar provisions, the mantras respectively being ‘prthivī darviraksitā’, ‘antariksam darvi- raksitā’, ‘dyaur-darviraksitā’. Medhātithi on Manu III, 194 says (following Āśv. Śr and others) that if the names of the ancestors are not known he should simply say ‘O Father, Grandfather’ &c. If the gotra be not known then he should employ the gotra name Kāśyapa.³³⁰

Certain matters pertaining to pindas must be stated in one place once for all. There is a good deal of discussion about the size of the pindaṣ Marīci (quoted by Aparārka p. 507) provides that in pãrvaṇa-śrāddha the pinda should be of the size of undried āmalaka fruit, of the size of a bilva fruit in Ekoddișța, in navaśrāddhas the pinda should be bigger than in any one of the preceding when offered every day during the days of impu- rity on death. The Skandapurāṇa says that pindas should be of such a size as would enable a calf two years old to put it easily into its mouth.³³¹ Angiras (q. by Sṃ C p. 475 and Hemādri, Śrāddha p. 1429) prescribes that the pindas may be of the size of kapittha or bilva fruit or of the size of a hen's egg or of an āmalaka or badara fruit. In the Maitrāyaṇīya-sūtra³³² it is said that the pinda for the paternal grandfather should be bigger than that for the father and should be in the middle (of the three pindas), that the pinda for the great-grandfather should be the largest of all. The next point is from what materials the pindas were to be made. If pindas were offered before agnaukaraṇa they were to be made from the boiled rice (caru) prepared for agnaukaraṇa. If made after agnaukaraṇa, the pindas were to be made from the cooked food (remaining after agnaukaraṇa) mixed with sesamum (vide Yāj I. 242). If pindas were to be offered after the brāhmaṇas took their dinner, the pindas were to be made from the remainder of the food cooked for the brāhmaṇas which was to be mixed with the boiled rice for agnaukaraṇa as stated in Kātyāyana's Śrāddha- sūtra.³³³ The pindas were to be placed according to the Matsya³³⁴ on darbhas spread on the ground cleaned with water mixed with cow's dung and urine. There were others such as Devala, the Brahmapurāṇa and Bhaviṣyapurāṇa that proscribed that an altar, either circular or square, of sand was to be raised on ground 4 fingers in height and one cubit in extent near the plates from which brāhmaṇas were to eat and thereon darbhas were to be placed and then pindaṣ The Vāyupurāṇa provides that a line should be drawn on the altar or the ground with the root of a darbha to the accompaniment of the following mantras viz, ³³⁵ ‘I destroy whatever is impure; I have killed all asuras, dānavas, rākṣasas, yakṣas, piśācas (goblins), guhyakas and yātudhānas’ and the mantra ‘struck down (are the asuras and rākṣasas sitting on the Vedi)’. In Āp. Śr. I 10.2, Manu III 217, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 73.17-19, Yama (q. by Hemādri p. 1440), the Kalpataru (on Śr. p. 203), Mahārṇavaprakāśa (q by Hemādri), Hemādri (Śr. pp. 1440-42) and Śr. P pp. 266-267 reference is made to adoration of the six seasons and the obeisance (namaskāra) to the pitṛs in the words ‘namo vaḥ pitaro’ (Vāj S II 32) ³³⁶ and the repetition of three mantras when each of the three pindas is offered, some holding that the seasons were to be deemed as identified with ‘rasa’, ‘śoṣa’ and four other words (in Vāj. S II 32), while others held that the adoration of the seasons is quite distinct from the namaskāras to the pitṛṣ In the Saunakātharvaṇasrāddha-kalpa, the pindas are offered in the reverse order i. e. first to the great-grand- father, then to the grandfather and then to the father (Hemādri on śrāddha p. 1442). Āp. Śr. I. 9. 4 refers to this method in ‘pitāmahaprabhṛtin vā’. About the final disposal (pratipatti) of the pindas several views were entertaineḍ We have already seen (note 780) that the Vāj. S. and several sūtras provided that the middle one of the three pindas for paternal ancestors was to be eaten by the wife of the performer of the śrāddha if she was desirous of a soṇ Manu (III 262-263) provides that the dharmapatnī (i. e. a wife of the same varṇa and married before any other wife) should eat the middle pinda with the mantra 'ādhatta pitāro garbham' (q. in ṇ 780) and then she gives birth to a son who lives long, secures fame, is intelligent and obtains wealth and progeny and who is of a good and righteous turn of minḍ The same rule is provided for by the Laghu-Āśvalāyana 23.83, the Kūrma II. 2. 71, 76, Matsya 16.52, Vāyu 76.31, Viṣṇudharmottara I. 171 8, 220. 149, Padma (sṛṣṭikhaṇḍa 9.121) and other purāṇaṣ As regards pindas in general, the Āśv. Śr. (II. 7. 14-17) says that the other two pindas (except the middle one) should be cast into water or in fire or they may be eaten by a brāhmaṇa who has suddenly developed a distaste for food or they may be partaken by one who has been suffering from a serious disease (such as tuberculosis or leprosy) and that in the latter case the man either recovers or dieṣ The Gobhila-gṛ. (IV. 3. 31-34) provides that the pindas should be thrown into water or in fire or should be given to a brāhmaṇa or a cow to eat. Manu (III. 260-261) says the same and adds that they may be given to a goat for eating and that some allow them to be devoured by birds Yāj. I. 257, Matsya 16.52-53, and Padma³³⁷ mention the same five ways of disposal but the last adds one more viz. placing them near a mound of earth. The Varāha-purāṇa ³³⁸ (190 121) says that the performer may eat the first pinda himself, he should give the middle to his wife and the third he should cast into water. The Anuśāsanaparva (125. 25,26) provides that the first and the third should be thrown into water or fire and the middle pinda should be eaten by the wife. It is provided by Bṛhaspati that if the wife is suffering from a disease or is already pregnant or is staying in some other IV] place, then an old bull or a goat may eat the middle piṇḍa (quoted by Sṃ C. on Śr. p. 486, Kalpataru on Śr p 224). The Viṣṇudharmottara (I. 141. 8) prescribes that when a śrāddha is performed at a tīrtha, the piṇḍas should be cast into the sacred water. The Anuśāsanaparva 125. 38–40 and some of the purāṇas such as Vāyu (76 32–34) and Brahma (220 150–152) provide that certain consequences follow from the disposal of piṇḍas in one way or another viz. the best worlds by giving piṇḍas to cows, intellect and fame from casting into water, long life from offering them to birds &c. Vide also Brahmāṇḍa (upodghāta, chap. 12. 31–35) which provides that if given to cows the result is best complexion, if to cocks then delicacy, long life if given crows In this connection it should be noted that piṇḍas of rice or of flour were not to be offered in all śrāddhaṣ The Śrāddha-kalpalatā (pp. 86–89) has a long discussion about the śrāddhas in which the offering of piṇḍas of food is forbiddeṇ For example, it quotes Pulastya to the effect that in śrāddhas performed on the two ayana days, on the two equinoctial days, on any saṁkrānti, no piṇḍas are to be offered, so also in śrāddhas on Ekādaśī, Trayodaśī, on Maghā and Kṛttikā nakṣatras, if a man desires to have sons and wealth.

On the question as to what is the principal item in the śrāddha there are three viewṣ Some, like Govindarāja,³³⁹ hold that feeding of brāhmaṇas is the principal thing and they rely on Manu III, 129 which says 'One may feed even a single learned brāhmaṇa in a rite for gods and manes and not many who do not know vedic mantras; by doing so he reaps abundant reward'. Here the reward or fruit is associated with feeding a learned brāhmaṇa There is a maxim³⁴⁰ of the Pūrvamīmāṁsā that 'whatever is mentioned in proximity with an action that has a reward or fruit but has no special reward of its own, is subsidiary (aṅga) to what is declared to have a rewarḍ' Besides, there is no piṇḍadāna in certain śrāddhas such as āmaśrāddha, śrāddha on the Yugādi days,³⁴¹ Others like Karka hold the view that piṇḍadāna is the principal item in śrāddha. They rely upon the fact that in the Viṣṇudharmasūtra (78. 52-53, and 85. 65-66) and in several Purāṇas such as the Varāha (13.50), Viṣṇu (III. 14.22-23), Brahmā (220.31-32), Viṣṇu- dharmottara (I 145.3-4) the pitṛs are stated to have expressed a deep yearning for a son who would offer them piṇḍas at Gayā and water on sacred rivers &c (vide note 911). Further support is sought for this view in the fact that in the śrāddha on the birth of a son and in śrāddha offered even by a good śūdra the feeding of brāhmaṇas is forbiddeṇ A third view is that both the feeding of brāhmaṇas and the offering of piṇḍas are the principal matters in a śrāddha. The Gobhila-smṛti, after stating ³⁴² the other two views and some of the reasons therefor, tells us that the author of it is himself in favour of this third view. In cases where the word śrāddha is employed and there is neither brāhmaṇa feeding nor piṇḍadāna as in Daiva śrāddha, the word śrāddha is applied in a secondary sense (gauṇa). Vide Hemādri (śrāddha) pp. 157-160. In the Dharmapradīpa it is said that among the followers of the Yajurveda (i e. Vājasaneyins) the offering of piṇḍas is principal, among the followers of the Ṛgveda the feeding of brāhmaṇas is principal, while among the followers of the Sāmaveda both are principal. In this way śrāddha partakes of two characters viz it is a yūga (sacrifice) and also ³⁴³ a gift (dāna) Haradatta, Hemādri, Kapardi and others appear to hold that all three (bhojana piṇḍadāna and agnaukaraṇa) are principal. Vide Saṁskāra-ratnamālā p. 1003.

The Matsyapurāṇa says in a famous passage 'ancestors from the fourth (i. e. the father, grand-father and great-grand- father of performer) are entitled only to the wipings of the articles of food (sticking to the hand of the performer of śrāddha); the father, (the grand-father and great-grand-father) are entitled to the pinda; the offered of the pinda is the 7th; thus sapinda relationship extends to seven generations ³⁴⁴. The Mārkaṇḍeya-purāṇa states that three ancestors beginning from the paternal grand-father of the paternal grandfather enjoy the wipings (of the hand of the performer when he offers pindas). ³⁴⁵ The Brahma-purāṇa (220. 84-86) has similar verseṣ Manu provided ³⁴⁶ that the performer should place three pindas on darbhas and then wipe off from his hand the particles of food and water sticking to it with the roots of the darbhas (on which the pindas were placed) and that such wipings are meant for those who are called 'lepabhāgin' (the three paternal ancestors after the paternal great-grand-father). Similar provisions are made by the Viṣṇu Dh. S. 73.22, Varāhapurāṇa 14.36, Garuḍapurāṇa (Ācārakāṇḍa 218 24), Kūrma II. 22.52. Medhātithi on Manu III, 216 says that even if no food or water sticks to the hand still the performer rubs the hand against the roots of the darbhas on which the first pinda was placeḍ A special rule was provided by Devala quoted in Śrāddhakalpalatā (p. 14) that if the father or mother became a mleccha (by forcible or voluntary conversion &c.) one should not observe any impurity for him or her and no śrāddha should be offered and when offering the three pindas in place of the father the name of Viṣṇu should be uttereḍ

One question that exercised the minds of well-known writers was whether the daily Vaiśvadeva should be performed before starting the śrāddha ceremonies or after the latter were finisheḍ We have to remember first that several works state that rites for pitṛs deserve pre-eminence over those for the gods³⁴⁷. Manu (III. 265) states³⁴⁸ that after the brāhmaṇas have been dismissed the performer of śrāddha shall offer the (daily) domestic bali offering and that this is the settled rule of dharma. Medhātithi explains that the word ‘bali’ is merely illustrative. The Matsyapurāṇa³⁴⁹ 17.61, the Varāhapurāṇa (14.43), Skanda VII. 1. 266. 101–102, Devala, Kārṣṇājini and others provide that after the rites for the fathers are finished Vaiśvadeva should be performeḍ When Vaiśvadeva is performed after the completion of śrāddha rites, it is to be offered from the food that remains after being utilized for the śrāddha dinner. But Hemādri (pp. 1058–1065) holds a long discussion and arrives at the following conclusionṣ In the case of an āhīṭāgni (p. 1064), Vaiśvadeva is to be performed before śrāddha except in the case of the śrāddha on the 11th day after death. In the case of one who has not kept the sacred fires there are three optional times for Vaiśvadeva, viz. after agnaukarana or after the vikira (scattering of food on darbhas for those dying without the Saṁskāras being performed for them), or after the brāhmaṇas are dismissed on the completion of the śrāddha (p 1064). If Vaiśvadeva is to be performed before śrāddha or in the midst of it, then the cooking of food must be done separately for Vaiśvadeva and for śrāddha. In the case of all, whether sāgnika or anagnika, Vaiśvadeva must be performed with the remainder of the food left after use in śrāddha, if the former is performed after the latter. There were sages like Paithinasi³⁵⁰ that held that Vaiśvadeva should not be performed with the food cooked for śrāddha without first offering the food to the brāhmaṇas invited for śrāddha dinner i e. Vaiśvadeva must be performed after śrāddha if the same food is to be used for the former. The Nirnayasindhu (III. p. 459) states that as most smṛtis place the performance of Vaiśvadeva after śrāddha and as many writers of commentaries and digests such as Medhātithi and Smrtiratnāvali do the same all should perform Vaiśvadeva after finishing śrāddha.

It is now necessary to illustrate how pārvaṇa śrāddha is performed in modern timeṣ Here the greatest variety prevailṣ The details of the rite vary in the different parts of India. They vary also according as the performer belongs to a particular Veda or a particular recension of the Veda, they vary according to the particular eminent writer that is followed and further additions are made according as the performer is a Vaisnava or a Śaiva. Such differences have to be passed over here, particularly because they are not material. We saw above that the Pārvaṇa-śrāddha was very simple in the days of the Brāhmaṇas and most of the sūtraṣ There was then no express mention of the worship of Viśvedevāḥ in Pārvaṇa-śrāddha, or of the maternal ancestors or of the wives of any ancestorṣ Gradually these came to be added and by the time of the Yājñavalkyasmṛti there was special invocation of the Viśvedevāḥ But these latter were probably not expressly divided into groups at the time of that work. During the smṛti period groups of Viśvedevāḥ came to be assigned to different kinds of śrāddhas (vide p 457 ³⁵²). The Purāṇas pres-cribed several Paurāṇic mantras for being recited during the śrāddha rite, such as the verse ‘āgacchantu’ ³⁵¹ and the verse ‘devatābhyah pitrbhyaśca’ (p. 458 ³⁵³). Then there arose the principle of the Pūrvamīmāmsā that all rites described in the different śākhās and sūtras constitute but one rite, and that one may take over from another śākhā or sūtra details described therein, which are not opposed to one’s own śākhā or sūtra (vide pp 453-55 ^1011-1013). This principle tended to make the śrāddha rites all inclusive and the whole procedure became swollen to an enormous extent. How even the slightest variation causes difference in the details may be illustrated by an example. In Mithilā villages even among poor men eleven brāhmaṇas are invited for pārvaṇa-śrāddha, but it is often difficult to secure a very learned man (who is called pātra or mahāpātra) to officiate. In such a case where a mahāpātra or a pātra brāhmaṇa is not available the śrāddha is called apātraka-pārvaṇaśrāddha (for which really there is no śāstric authority) and is distinguished from the sapātraka pārvaṇa-śrāddha in several matters, two of which in the case of the Vājasaneyins may be stated here. Though the Śrāddhasūtra of Kātyāyana, which is of special authority among Vājasaneyins, declares (at the end of kaṇḍikā III) that the brāhmaṇas are to be dismissed at the end of the śrāddha with the verse ‘Vāje vāje’ (Vāj. S. 9. 18) and the performer should circumambulate the brāhmaṇas with the mantra ‘ā mā vājasya’ (Vāj. S. 9. 19), it is not the practice among the śistas in Mithilā according to the editor of the Śrāddharatna to observe these directions in what is called ‘apatrāka-pārvaṇa-śrāddha’ in these dayṣ In Rudradhara’s Śrāddhaviveka (pp. 138–146) the ‘apatrāka-pārvaṇa-śrāddha-prayoga’ is set out at length.

In medieval and modern times in the different provinces of India different manuals are followed by the followers of the several Vedaṣ For example, in Bengal the Samavedins, Yajurvedins and Ṛgvedins follow the procedure of pārvaṇa-śrāddha laid down in the manuals (or paddhats) of Bhavadeva, Paśupati and Kālesī respectively and there are many persons who follow the rules laid down by Raghunandana in his Śrāddhatattva and Yajurvediśrāddha-tattva. In Mithilā Śrīdatta wrote his Pitṛbhakti for Yajurvedins and the Śrāddha-kalpa for Samavedins and the Śrāddharatna of Mahāmaho-pādhyāya Lakṣmīpati (between 1500 to 1640 A. D.) which is printed at Darbhanga and claims to be the traditional manual for Maithilas (Maithila-sampradāyīka-śrāddhapaddhati) in several places says that it follows the Sugaṭīsopāna of Prati-hastaka for Cāndogas and also for Vājasaneyinṣ In the Madras State Vaiṣṇava brāhmaṇas follow special treatises on Pūrva and Apara kriyās of Vaidika-Sārvabhauma or Harita Venkaṭācārya or Tolappar and Smārta brāhmaṇas follow the Smṛtimuktāphala of Vaidyanātha, which does not much differ in major matters from the works of Vaidikasārvabhauma. Often the only differences are in the saṅkalpa and at the enḍ It is impossible to exhibit in this work the contents of all these manuals and to compare and contrast theṃ Therefore I shall set out here a model pārvaṇaśrāddha rite as performed by Ṛgvedins in Western India and then a Śukla Yajurveda rite. The Pratisamvatsarika śrāddha³⁵⁴ rite for Ṛgvedins in Western India may be set out as follows:—(From the references added in the text and notes it will be clear that this modern rite is all inclusive i. e. it follows the Āśv. Śr. often taking passages verbatim from it, the smṛtis and purāṇas). The performer wears white garments (lower and upper) and sits on a seat of kuśas or of wool or deer skin and then sips water twice and wears a pavitra on the finger next to the small finger with Rg. IX. 83 1. He ties his top knot on the head and sacred thread with kuśas, and ties three kuśa blades with tīlas on the left of the dhoṭī worn by hiṃ Then he performs prāṇāyāma and declares the resolve (saṅkalpa)³⁵⁵ to perform (the Sāmvatsarika) śrāddha after referring to the time and place and together with agnaukarana, piṇḍadāna &c The invited brāhmaṇas reply 'do so'. Then the performer puts into a copper vessel water with the mantra 'imam me Gange' (Rg X. 75. 5), sandalwood paste with the mantra 'Gandhadvārām,' yava grains with the mantra 'thou art yava, king of cereals, Varuna is thy patron, thou art endowed with sweetness, thou art the remover of all sins and art known by all sages as holy', betelnut (with Rg X. 97,15), gold (or some coin) with the mantra 'Hiranya- rūpāḥ' (Rg. II. 35.10), flowers and basil leaveṣ (Then he becomes prācīnāvitī)³⁵⁶ and puts sesamum grains in the water (in another vessel) with the mantra ‘Tilosi’ (quoted in note 966), Bhrṅgarāja leaf with the mantra ‘mā kākam’ (Ṛg. VI. 48. 17), betelnut, gold (or coin). Then he repeats the Puruṣa-sūkta ³⁵⁷ (Ṛg. X. 90), Ṛg X 128 1–9, IX 53 1–4, Ṛg X. 126. 1–8, Ṛg. IV. 40 5, Ṛg. VII 89 5, the sacred Gāyatrī with om and the three Vyāhṛtis, Ṛg. VII 56. 12, Ṛg VIII. 44. 21, 17, Ṛg. VIII. 95. 7–9. Then after repeating the well-known verse ‘apavitraḥ pavitro vā’ ³⁵⁸ (whoever, whether pure or impure or being in any state whatever, remembers the name of Viṣṇu becomes pure externally as well as internally), he requests ‘May everything such as the place and the materials be rendered pure’. The brāhmaṇas reply ‘let it be so.’ Then placing some coin on the ground, the performer having in his hand sesamum grains, water and kūśas goes round (pradakṣiṇā) the brāhmaṇas thrice, and repeats three verses (in classical sanskrit) in praise of the dust of the feet of brāhmaṇas and a Vedic passage from Tai Ā. II. 15 ³⁵⁹ ‘All the devatās reside in a brāhmaṇa who knows the Veda; therefore every day one should perform obeisance to brāhmaṇas knowing the Veda. He should not utter anything derogatory or evil (either true or false) about theṃ (By doing so) he pleases all these devatāṣ’ After making obeisance (to the brāhmaṇas) twice he should be prācīnāvīti, repeat the verse ‘akrodhanaiḥ’ (note 913 p. 407 above) and request the brāhmaṇas ‘may you be pleased to say that I have complete adhikāra to perform the sāṁvatsarikaśrāddha of my pitṛs this day.’ The brāhmaṇas should reply ‘let there be this adhikāra for the performance of śrāddha.’ Then being upavītin the performer requests ‘may you declare that this time is the proper time and that the food cooked is fit for being offered’. The brāhmaṇas reply ‘let it be so.’ Then he asks the permission to give invitation to the brāhmaṇaṣ They give it. Then he touches the right knee of one brāhmaṇa and says ‘you should find time to accept the invitation to act as representing the Viśve-devas named Purūrava and Ārdrava in this pratisāṁvatsarika śrāddha of my pitṛs’. The brāhmaṇa replies ‘yes, be it so.’ Then the performer addresses the second Vaiśvadevika brāhmaṇa in the same way (if two brāhmaṇas have been invited for the purpose) and then wearing the sacred thread in the prācīnāvīta way should touch the left knee of the brāhmaṇa (pitrya) and say to him ‘you should accept the invitation to represent my father, grandfather and great-grandfather in this pratisāmvatsarika śrāddha.’ The brāhmaṇa should reply ‘so be it.’ He should request ‘you should repair to my house.’ The brāhmaṇa replies ‘I shall do so’ Then he should make mandalas ³⁶⁰ for the daiva and pitrya brāhmaṇaṣ Then savyaṃ The performer should offer seat, sandalwood paste, flowers and say ‘may all the items (upacāras) of showing honour be complete by means of yavā grainṣ’ Then apasavyaṃ He offers āsana (seat), sandalwood paste and flowers and declares ‘may all the upacāras be completed by means of sesamum grainṣ’ Then savyaṃ He offers welcome to the daiva brāhmaṇas, to which they respond by saying ‘susvāgatam’ (it is a good welcome). Then he should say ‘here is pādya for you, O Viśve devas called Purūrava and Ārdraval Bhūr-bhuvah-svah to the (daiva) brāhmaṇa’; the response is ‘supādyam’. He should wash the feet of (the daiva) brāhmaṇa or brāhmaṇas with the mantra ‘śan no devīr’ (Rg X. 9.4, vide ṇ 968 ). Then he wears the thread in the apasavya way and offers welcome to the pitrya brāhmaṇa or brāhmaṇas representing the three male ancestors ³⁶¹ and offers to give pādya to them and they respond with the words ‘susvāgatam’ and ‘supādyam’. He also employs the verse ‘śan no devīr’ as in the case of daiva brāhmaṇaṣ

Then the performer casts away the pavitra worn so far, washes his hands and feet, performs ācamana and wears two pavitraṣ Then savyaṃ He says ‘welcome to all.’ They respond with ‘susvāgatam’. Then holding the right hand (except the thumb) of the daiva brāhmaṇas he says ‘Ye gods, occupy seats’; they respond by saying ‘susumāsmahe’ (we have well occupied them). Then apasavyaṃ He addresses similar words to pitrya brāhmaṇas who respond in a similar way. Then savyaṃ He seeks ‘permission in the words ‘I shall perform the Pratisāmvatsarika śrāddha of my pitṛs that has been begun'. The brāhmaṇas say 'do so'. Then the verse 'sam no devīr' (Rg. X. 9. 4) is repeated and also the words 'thou art yava, separate from us those who hate us and who are our enemies'. Then apasavyaṃ The following texts are repeated viz. Rg. X. 9.4, Rg. X. 15.1 and with the mantra 'The asuras, rākṣasas, the piśācas, that dwell along the earth are struck down; may they go from this place elsewhere wherever their mind may be fixed', he scatters sesamum grains everywhere and repeats the mantra, Rg. X. 87.1 There are eight Vasus, eleven Rudras and twelve Adityaṣ Let there be protection given by Viṣṇu at the door where śrāddha is being performed and may this spot be Gayā. The brāhmaṇas reply 'Let it be a good spot.' Then savyaṃ He sprinkles drops of water with darbhas over the food that is cooked for the śrāddha dinner with the mantras viz. Rg. IX. 58, 1, IX. 67. 26-28 and with the three Vyāhṛtis and the Gāyatri. Then he requests 'May there be purity of the cooking' and 'may the sprinkling of the cooked food be accord- ing to the rules prescribed,' to which the response is 'so be it.' Then the verse 'agacchantu mahābhāgāḥ' (vide note 984) is recited and the brāhmaṇas reply 'we are careful (or atten- tive).' Then apasavyaṃ He announces 'contemplating upon this spot where śrāddha is being performed as Gayā and concentrating the mind on Gadādhara (Viṣṇu) and the pitṛs in the form of Vasus and the like, the śrāddha (rite) proceeds'. The brāhmaṇas say 'do proceed'. Then savyaṃ He gives water on the hand of the daiva brāhmaṇas, places on the right side of the seat occupied by them two darbhas together with yavas with his upturned right hand held by the left hand and says with the Vyāhṛtis (Bhūr, bhuvaḥ, svaḥ) 'this is the seat for the brāhmaṇa representing the Viśva devas called Purūrava and Ārdrava'. The brāhmaṇa replies 'svāsanam'. This is done also for the second daiva brāhmaṇa. He then says 'Please sit down here, though art Dharma' and seizing the brāhmaṇa's hand (ex- cept the thumb) he says 'accept the invitation for being daiva brāhmaṇa in the Pratisāmvatsarika śrāddha.' The response is 'so be it'. Then reaching the arghya water, he sprinkles the ground in front of the (daiva) brāhmaṇas with water, spreads two darbhas (in front of each daiva brāhmaṇa) with their tips towards the east, places down two vessels with their tops turned downwards, sprinkles water over them with the Gāyatri mantra, raises the vessels up (i. e. turns their tops upwards), again sprinkles water over them and places over them (the two vessels) two kūrcas ¹¹⁰¹ with the tips turned to the east, pours into them water and invokes the water once with the mantra, 'śan no devīr' (Rg. X. 9. 4). Then he puts yava grains into the two arghya vessels for daiva brāhmaṇas with the mantra 'Yavosi dhānyarājo vā' (note 985 ) and also sandalwood paste, flowers, basil leaf and performs obeisance. He says 'May all the upacāras be completed by means of yavas; the two arghya vessels for daiva brāhmaṇas are fully ready'. The response is 'susam̓panne'. He says 'svāhā, these are arghya waters'. The response is 'let there be arghya waters'. Placing his left hand in which he holds kuśas and yava grains on the right knee of the daiva brāhmaṇa and holding in his (right) hand yava grains he says 'I shall invoke the Viśve devas called Purūrava and Ārdrava to be present in you' They respond 'do invoke'. He invokes the Viśve-devas with the mantra 'viśve devāsa' (Rg II. 47. 13) separately repeated as regards each daiva brāhmaṇa. He says, 'I invoke the Viśve devas with the mantra 'viśve devāḥ śṛṇutemam̓' (Rg. VI. 52. 13). Having invoked Viśve devas he casts the remaining yava grains on the ground near the feet of the daiva brāhmaṇaṣ Then he gives water to them (daiva brāhmaṇas) and he puts in their hands the darbhas placed over the arghya vessels; he says 'O Viśve devas called Purūrava and Ārdrava! this is arghya water for you; svāhā, adoration'. They respond 'let there be arghya'. Repeating the mantra 'yā divyā apaḥ' (vide Āśv. Gr. IV. 7. 13 above in ṇ 966) he says 'this arghya has been offered, it is no longer mine.' They respond 'let it be so offered'. The same process is followed as to the second daiva brāhmaṇa. Then he offers fragrant ¹¹⁰² substances (sandalwood paste etc.), flowers, basil leaves, incense, lamp, and cash according to his ability as substitute for garment, gopicandana for unguent, sacred chord and two kuśa blades for pavitra with the words 'O Viśve devāḥ, called Purūrava and Ārdrava! these are fragrant substances for you according to your portions; svāhā, adoration'. When offering a garment or cash therefor he recites 'yuvā suvāsāḥ' (Rg. III. 8.4). Then he says 'these items viz. gandha, leaves, flowers, incense, lamp ending with covering (garment) be all of them complete, Let there be good worship in the rite of worship. May that which is wanting or is excessive be according to prescribed rules'. The brāhmaṇas respond 'astu vidhivat' and the performer recites the verse 'I do obeisance to Acyuta by remembering whom or by uttering whose name whatever is wanting in tapas (observances) or sacrifices becomes at once perfect'.

Then he says to the pitrya brāhmaṇas 'with your permission I shall offer worship to the pitṛs'. They reply 'do offer.' Then apasavyaṃ After bending his right knee, the performer says 'Bhūr bhuvaḥ svah to Brahman, this is the seat for my father, grandfather and great-grandfather, named N. N., whose gotra is so and so and who are identical with Vasu, Rudra and Āditya'. So saying he offers double-folded darbhas with sesamum grains to the pitrya brāhmaṇas who reply 'svāsanam'. Then follows the same procedure as regards pitrya brāhmaṇas which has been already set out as to daiva brāhmaṇaṣ The only difference is that instead of two darbhas three darbhas are spread on the ground with their tips towards the south, three vessels are placed towards south-east with faces downwards and three double-folded darbhas are placed on each of the three vessels, instead of 'yavosi' the mantra is 'tilosi somadevatyaḥ' (vide note 966) and instead of 'svaha namaḥ' the words 'svadhā namaḥ' are employed and instead of tulasi leaf bhṛngarāja leaf is employeḍ In āvāhana the performer places his left hand holding kuśas and sesame on the left knee of the pitrya brāhmaṇa and the verse repeated is 'uśāntas tvā' (Rg. X. 16. 12) as to each pitrya brāhmaṇa and he should honour the pitṛs by repeating one mantra 'ā yantu naḥ' (Vāj. S. 19. 58). He offers arghya³⁶⁴ water with the right hand supported by the left to the father and the other two paternal ancestorṣ He brings together the samsravas³⁶⁵ in the first pitrya vessel and anoints his face with that water, if he desires a soṇ The brāhmaṇas respond 'may you have a son'. IV ] He places the vessel containing samsravas with the top upside down on darbhas to the north of the daiva vessel, with the mantra ‘thou art a place for the pitrs.’ Then gandha, flowers with tulasi and bhrngarāja leaves, incense, lamp, garment or cash therefor, gopicandana, sacred chord, betelnut, kuśas for pavitra are offered to the pitrs and he repeats the verse ‘idam pitrbhyah’ (Rg. X. 15. 2). After repeating the verse ‘yat smrtyā’ (vide above) there is ‘savyam’. The performer says ‘with your permission I shall prepare mandalas and place the plates’. The response is ‘do so’. On the spot where the plates for daiva brāhmaṇas are to be placed a four-cornered mandala beginning from the south-west to north-east and made with the right hand towards it and on the spot for the plates for pitrya brāhmaṇas the mandala is circular beginning from north-east to south-west made with the left hand towards it. Then the plates for the diners are to be placed inside those mandalas. Then taking holy ashes (apasaīyam) he draws a line round the plates for pitrya brāhmaṇas with the mantra ‘pīśānga-bhrstim’ (Rg. I. 133. 5). Then savyam. Then round the plates of the daiva brāhmaṇas he draws lines with the mantras ‘raksā no’ (Rg. IV. 3. 14) and ‘brahma ca’ (Rg. X. 4. 7) and two more verses (probably Paurānic ) which pray that the mark made with ashes may guard all, just as Viṣṇu protects the worldṣ Just as Viṣṇu renders ineffective the eyes of all men of evil sight, so one should make a mandala with ashes and when this is done there is no blemish in sitting in the same row for dining. Then the purification of the hand (right) of the brāhmaṇas is done, beginning with the pitrya brāhmaṇa first. Then the performer requests ‘let me perform agnaukarana with your permission in the hand’³⁶⁶ of the (pitrya) brāhmaṇa. The reply is ‘do so’. Then apasavyam. Taking some cooked food and anointing it with clarified butter and dividing it into parts, having touched the two parts placed towards the south he says ‘this for Soma accompanied by the Pitrs, this for Agni, the carrier of kavya’ and having spread the left hand under-neath the right hand, having cut off portions from the middle and the part to the east according to the rules for avadānas ³⁶⁷ and having poured clarified butter on the food in the vessel and on the food cut off for oblations, he should offer the oblations with the words 'To Soma accompanied by pitrs, svadhā and adoration; this for Soma with the pitrs and it is not (now) mine' and to Agni the bearer of Karyā, svadhā and adoration; this is for Agni Kavyavāhana and not mine.' This is the mode every-where. He touches water with the left hand and repeats the following (which is called 'samsthā-japa' and occurs in Āśv. Śr. 1. 11.15) 'Om ca me.. te namaḥ'. Obeisance to Agni. Svasti. Then he prays 'O Kavyavāhana! bestow on me faith, memory, glory, intelligence, learning, intellect, wealth, strength, long life, brilliance, health.' He says 'offering has been made on the hand'. The response is 'suhutam'. Then he pours ghee on the vessel containing the food and repeats 'mūrdhānam divah' (Rg VI 7.1) Then the brāhmaṇas should cast the food on their hands in the vessel over which ghee has been poured and then mutter Trisuparṇa, ³⁶⁸ the hymns to anna (Rg. I. 187. 1-11 and several others) and other hymns Then certain pauranic verses should be repeated, viz 'Devatā-bhyah' (note 1020), the verse 'one should always recite at śrāddha these holy places viz Kurukṣetra, Gayā, Gangā Prabhāsa and Puskara', the two verses ³⁶⁹ 'saptavyādhā' (note 994a) and three more verses, one speaking of adoration to pitrs and the other two praying to Viṣṇu and Śiva for favourṣ Then sauyaṃ Then he sprinkles water (proksana) on the food with the Gāyatrī mantra. Then bending his right knee he silently spills water. Then holding the plate with the right hand above and the left hand below he utters the mantra 'the earth is thy vessel ³⁶⁹, the heaven is the lid I sacrifice thee in the brāhmaṇa's mouth. I sacrifice thee in the Prāṇa (breath) and Apāna (breath) of learned brāhmaņaṣ Thou art imperishable. Do not perish for these (Fathers) here and in the next worlḍ' Then he repeats 'ato devā' (Rg. I. 22. 16) and 'O Viṣṇu, guard the sacrificial food'. With the hand IV] turned downwards he thrusts in the-food (served in the plate) the root of the thumb of the brāhmaṇa turned downwards and should revolve it (in the food) from right to left. Then touching the plate with his left hand the performer should say ‘The Viśve devās called Purūrava and Ārḍrava are the deity, this food is the sacrificial offering, this brāhmaṇa serves as āhava nīya fire, this place is Gayā, this brāhmaṇa diner is Gadādhara, this food is Brahma, the golden vessel is the shade of the Akṣayyavaṭa (at Gayā). This food together with the flavour ing dishes which is already served (in the plate) and which may be served therein (later), is the sacrificial food offered to the Viśve devās called Purūrava and Ārḍrava till this brāh maṇa is satisfieḍ Adoratioṇ It is not mine. Om Tat Sat. May the food offered at the fourteen spots such as Viṣṇupada at Gayā be inexhaustible!'. So saying he should cast on the ground towards the left side of the plate water mixed with darbhas and yavaṣ He says ‘May Gadādhara (Viṣṇu) of Gayā be pleased’. The brāhmaṇas respond ‘May he be pleased’. He then repeats ‘Ye devāso’ (Rg. I. 139.11). Then he says ‘with the per mission of the daiva brāhmaṇas I shall present food to the Father and others’. They reply ‘do so’. Then apasavyam. Then silent tly sprinkling water round the plate, and touching the plate (of the pitrya brāhmaṇa) with the left hand above and the right hand below it, he repeats the formula ‘pṛthivī te pātraṁ ..loke’ (vide p 444 note 992) and the verse ‘idaṁ Viṣṇur’ (Rg. I. 22. 17) and say ‘O Viṣṇu! guard the kavya food,’ he should thrust the root of the thumb of the (pitrya) brāhmaṇa in the food (served in the plate) and revolve it from right to left. Then touching the plate (of the pitrya brāhmaṇa) with the left hand he should say ‘the father, grand-father and great-grand father are devatā, this food is of the nature, of kavya, the brāhmaṇa is in place of the āhavanīya fire, this place is Gayā, this dining brāhmaṇa is Gadādhara, this food is Brahma, this silver plate is the shade of the Akṣayyavaṭa (at Gayā), svadhā to my father, grandfather and great-grandfather named so and so, of gotra so and so, that are Vasu, Rudra and Āditya respectively, this food with the side dishes that is already served in the plate and that may be served (later) is kavya up till this brāhmaṇa is satiateḍ Adoration! It is not mine. Tat sat. May the food given at the 14 spots such as Rudrapada at Gayā be inexhaustible. May Gadādhara of Gayā be pleaseḍ’ He then repeats the verse ‘ye ceha pitarao’ (Rg. X. 15. 13) and says ‘May the food intended for the pitrs please them'. Then svayaṃ³⁷⁰ Then naivedya is offered with the verse 'brahmārpanam' (Gītā 4. 24) and with three more verses in which Hari is said to be giver and the enjoyer and the food as having both natures viz. those of pitrs and devas and ultimately he winds up by saying 'tat sat brahmārpanamastu'. Then apasanyaṃ Then two verses are repeated in which adoration is offered to the feet of Śiva, Viṣṇu, Brahmā and other gods, in which even remembrance of Gayā-ksetra is highly eulogiseḍ Adoration to Kāśī Viśvesvara! adoration to Viṣṇu and Gadādhara at Gayā! Then he says 'I shall repeat in your hearing the madhumati verses beginning with 'madhu vāta' (Rg. I. 90. 6-8). Then he repeats the word 'madhu' thrice. The brāhmaṇas respond 'sumadhu, all food is sweet.' Then apasavyaṃ Then a verse in praise of Viṣṇu (eko Visnur &c.) 'there is one great Being viz. Viṣṇu who has assumed the form of my father, grandfather and great-grandfather be pleased by this feeding of brāhmaṇas at the pratisamvatsarika śrāddha of my pitrs'. The response is 'may he be so pleased'. Tat sat brahmārpanam-astu. Then having given water to the brāhmaṇas for apośana³⁷¹ (then svayam) he says 'partake of (the food) at your pleasure' and 'though art the first layer of nectar' Then he repeats the mantra ³⁷² 'fixing myself in faith and in Prāna I offer nectar; being beneficent enter me without burning me. Svāhā to Prāna'. This is repeated as to Apāna, Vyāna, Udāna, Samāna with the substitution of each of these four remaining life-breathṣ Then he winds up 'my soul is in Brahma for the sake of immortality' and then 'svāhā to Brahma'. Then the hands are purified (by washing them with water). After muttering the Gāyatri verse ten times or three times, he repeats the hymn to Śrāddha (Rg. X. 151. 1-5. Then the performer requests ‘you should ask for what is wanted; seating yourself you should with minds at ease eat at your pleasure. You should take from the foods and vegetables that are cooked and are ready whatever pleases you and should discard what you do not like You should eat at and ‘we partake (of the food)’. He says ‘I shall recite the hymns called Rāksoghna ³⁷³ as far as I caṇ’ They respond ‘repeat’. Then towards the end of the dinner a little boiled rice with curds (should be served) and nectar-like Ganges water. He says ‘everything is perfect Ask for what- ever you like out of the sacrificial food that is cooked’. They respond ‘we have had enough’. He says ‘I shall recite the Madhumati verses (Rg. I. 90 6-8) in your hearing ‘recite them’. Then apasavyaṃ He recites Rg. I.82,2 ³⁷³ and should say ‘The śrāddha called so and so is completed’. They should respond ‘susampannam’ Then savyaṃ He asks ‘Ye Viśvedevāḥ! are you satisfied?’ They reply ‘we are satisfied’. Then apasavyaṃ He asks ‘Ye (brāhmaṇas) representing my father, grandfather and great-grandfather! are you satisfied?’ They reply ‘We are satisfied’. He asks ‘what is to be done with the food that remains?’. They reply ‘it may be eaten in the company of your friends (and relatives)’. Then savyaṃ

Then the performer declares that he would perform in the Pratī-sāmvatsarika-śrāddha piṇḍapradāna (the offering of lumps of rice ) together with water and sesamum grainṣ They reply ‘do so’. ‘Let food be given to those who take as their share what remains outside the plates of the brāhmaṇa diners’. The performer says ³⁷⁴ ‘May all the (deceased) men and women slaves that were born in the performer’s household obtain satis- faction by the food given by me on the ground’. (Then he offers water to the brāhmaṇas with the words) ‘thou art the nectarial lid’ (or covering). He says ‘May the water given to those who hanker for it, who dwell in Padma and Arbuda and Raurava (hells) full of pus reach them inexhaustibly'. Then he repeats the mantra ³⁷⁵ 'The asuras and raksas that sit on the altar are struck and driven away' (Vāj S. II. 29). Sprinkling the ground with water and strewing thereon darbhas cut with one stroke that have their tips turned towards the south-east he says ³⁷⁶ 'May the Fathers wash themselves, may the great-grandfathers wash themselves'. In the same way he should sprinkle on the kusa grass water mixed with sesamum grains for the mothers and the rest. Then he says 'This (food) is for thee, my father named so and so, of such and such gotra, who is (to be contemplated) as Vasu and for those who come here after thee; this is the pinda for thee ³⁷⁷, svaha! This pinda occupying the position of a pinda offered at Gayā is presented to my father named so and so and of such and such gotra and who is in the place of Vasu, it is (now) not mine'. Similar formulas are repeated for the pinda offered to the grandfather (who is styled 'Rudrarūpa' instead of 'Vasurūpa') and to the great-grandfather (who is styled 'Adityarūpa'). Then he utters 'Tut sat.' 'May whatever is offered in Gayā at the fourteen spots such as Visnupada be inexhaustible'. Then he wipes off on the roots of ³⁷⁸ the darbhas on which the pindas are placed the particles (of rice, ghee and water) sticking to his hand for the gratification of those that are entitled to the wipingṣ Having uttered ³⁷⁹ once over the pindas the mantra 'O fathers; regale yourselves here, come as bulls each to his share', he should turn towards the north with the left side of his body, and having held his breath according to his ability he should return to the original position and utter the words ‘the Fathers regaled themselves and came like bulls, each to his share’ and having smelt the remains of the boiled rice from which pindas are made from the left side (to the right) he should cast the pindas (on the darbhas) and should partake of the boiled rice by taking in as much steam and flavour out of it as he can by smelling it. He should say ‘my father! N. N. by name, so and so by gotra, apply unctuous substance’; with these words he should anoint the pindas by means of darbhas with ghee or sesamum oil. And he should apply collyrium to the pindas with the words ‘O father! N. N. by name and so and so by gotra apply collyrium’. He should put on the pindas unctuous substance, collyrium and garment, ³⁸⁰ the last being the fringe of a garment or a tuft of wool with the words ‘O fathers! this is this’. Then svayam. He then says ‘I shall offer worship to the pindas for the prosperity of my family’. He then offers to the pitrs present in the pindas pādya, arghya, water for ācamana, bath, gandha, flowers, bhrngarāja leaf, incense, lamp and naivedya of apūpa (cakes) and pāyasa (rice cooked in milk), tāmbūla and dakṣiṇā, using the word ‘svadhā’ after each of theṃ Then he should worship ³⁸¹ them with the mantra ‘Fathers! obeisance to you for the sake of food, for strength, for śuṣma, for the non-terrible (aghora), for jīva, for rasa; svadhā to you, O pitrs, obeisance to you; these are yours, O pitrs! these are ours; we are your living (descendants), may we be alive here!’ He then recites the verses ³⁸² Rg. X. 57. 3–5. Having thus worshipped them he then (apasavyam) with the palm of the hand turned upwards moves the pindas with the mantra ³⁸³ ‘paretana’ which means ‘O fathers who love soma. drink! Go away by the sombre ancient paths, after bestowing on us wealth and endow us here with auspicious prosperity and all valiant sons'. He should repeat thrice the prayer 'O fathers! bestow on us a valiant son'.³⁸⁴

Then `samyam`. On the ground near the plates of the Vaiśva- deva brāhmaṇas he scatters food together with `yavas` and water with the verse 'I shall offer food scattered (`vikira`) near the Vaiśvadeva brāhmaṇas to those gods to whom no soma drink is offered and who are bereft of a share in sacrifices; this scattered food is offered to Viśvedevas who do not partake of the soma drink; it is not (now) mine'. Then `apasaryam` He says 'I shall offer food scattered near `pitya` brāhmaṇas on the ground covered with `darbhas` to those who died without the `Saṁskāras` as being performed for them and to those women of my family who left the family (for bad deeds); this scattered food is presented to those boys and girls that came out of the womb; it is not mine'. So saying he strews food with water and sesamum seeds and then says after reciting Rg. X. 15.14 'this pinda made from the remainder of the food and occupying the position that a `pinda` given at Gayā occupies, has been offered to those persons who were born in my family and died and who were cremated or were not cremated; this is not mine'. So saying he offers near the `pitrya` brāhmaṇas a ball of rice and water mixed with sesamum grainṣ

Then he washes his hands and feet, sips water twice and puts on his finger a `pavita` with the mantra '`pavitravantaḥ`' (Rg IX. 73. 3). He then requests that the water in the hands of the `daiva` brāhmaṇas be auspicious (or beneficial). The brāhmaṇas reply 'may the waters be auspiciouṣ' In the same way there are requests for goodwill, for protection due to `yavas`, for long life, welfare, peace, prosperity, contentment and responses by the `daiva` brāhmaṇas giving blessings as to these. Then `apasavyam`. Then the same request for auspiciousness of waters, goodwill, protection by sesamum grains &c. and blessings about them by `pitrya` brāhmaṇaṣ Then the performer requests 'may my family increase (or prosper) and may the procedure of worshipping the `pindas` be good,' to which the `pitrya` brāhmaṇas respond 'may it be so.’ Then raising the praṇītā ³⁸⁵ vessel the performer requests ‘May you say that the water and food and the like offer- ed in the Pratisāmvatsarikaśrāddha to pitṛ, pitāmaha and pra- pitāmaha, so and so by name and gotra, be inexhaustible.’ The pitrya brāhmaṇas reply ‘so be it.’ Then saṁyaṃ The same request is made to the daiva brāhmaṇas and the reply is the same. Then gold is given to the daiva brāhmaṇas and silver to pitrya brāhmaṇas and the performer says ‘may the dakṣiṇās (fees) given to the brāhmaṇas that ate the śrāddha dinner protect (me).’ They reply ‘may they do so’ Then he says ‘I shall request you to utter the word svadhā !’ They reply ‘do so.’ Then apasavyaṃ Then he says ‘May (the brāhmaṇas representing) father, grand- father and great-grandfather utter the word svadhā.’ They reply ‘let there be svadhā.’ Then he should place over the piṇḍas sesamum grains and water. Then he says ‘May you declare that svadhā be accomplisheḍ’ Then reply ‘may svadhā be accomplisheḍ’ Then savyaṁ. Then he says ‘may you say that the gods led by Agni be pleaseḍ’ Then reply ‘may the Viśvedevāḥ be pleaseḍ’ Then apasavyaṃ Then he requests ‘May you declare that the pitṛs led by the Vasus be pleased’. They reply ‘may the pitṛs be pleaseḍ’ Savyaṁ. He says ‘May you declare that there is accomplishment of the saṁkalpa’ (made at the beginning of the rite ). They reply ‘May there be accomplishment of the saṁkalpa.’ He asks ‘were the vegetables and cooked food liked by the pitṛs’. They reply ‘they were most excellent’. Then the performer decks himself by applying sandal paste to his foreheaḍ After doing obeisance to the piṇḍas he requests for blessings for his family (which are the same as those set out above from the Padma- purāṇa on p 452 above) and one more blessing ‘May persons beg of us but may we not beg of any one’ (vide ṇ 998). The brāhmaṇas reply in the same words only employing the words ‘you’ or ‘your’ for ‘us’ or ‘our’.

He says ‘I shall remove the piṇḍas’. They reply ‘do remove’. Then he repeats the verses ‘Tad Viṣṇoḥ’ (Rg. I 22.20), ‘Tad viprāso’ (Rg. I 22.21) and two more verses and then a Paurāṇic verse enumerating the seven holy cities of Ayodhyā, Mathurā, Māyā, Kāśī, Kāñcī, Avantikā and Dvārakā. He says ‘May there be peace, prosperity and contentment on the spot where the piṇḍas are’. They reply ‘these (peace &c ) dwell in their own places’. He says ‘I shall remove the plates in which the brāhmaṇas had their dinner.' Then he lays aside the kūrca. He then recites the verse 'Vāje vāje' (Rg. VII. 38. 8). Then saṃyaṃ Then he says 'O pitṛs, get up together with the devas' and repeats the verses 'a mā vājasya' (Vaj. S. 9. 19), 'svādusaṃsadah' (Rg. VI. 75 9), 'brāhmaṇāsaḥ pitaraḥ' (Rg. VI. 75. 10), 'ihaiva stam' (Rg. X. 85. 42). Then he recites 'may the grand-fathers being pleased grant to men (their descendants) long life, progeny, wealth, learning, heaven, mokṣa, happiness and kingdom' (Yāj. I. 270, but reads 'prayacchantu' for 'prayac-chanti'). Then he prays 'May these blessings turn out to be true, may my family prosper, may this Pratisamvatsarika-śrāddha have the same fruits as that of a śrāddha performed at Gayā! May the pitṛs secure inexhaustible gratificatioṇ' Then he proceeds 'Today my birth has had its reward by bowing to your feet &c.' (vide ṇ 999 for the two verses repeated here). The brāhmaṇas reply 'we forget the trouble and excuse you.' Then he says 'Today this tithi is like a day sacred to the sun, the brāhmaṇas invited are like Vyāsa, Vasiṣṭha and Vāmadeva; may you declare that whatever is lacking as regards seats, dinner, mantras, procedure, materials and fees in this prati-samvatsarika śrāddha of my pitṛs performed by me today be-come all perfect at the words of brāhmaṇas'. They reply 'May all be perfect'. Then he recites the two verses 'Vasist-haśāh pitṛvad' and 'devān vasistho' (Rg. X. 66. 14–15) and then at the end he repeats the verse containing a salutation (the word 'namaḥ') viz 'idam pitṛbhyo namo astvadya' (Rg. X. 15. 2). Therefore at the end (of a śrāddha rite) one does obeisance to the pitṛs (in the words 'namo_ vah pitāro &c '). Therefore they say "should one repeat the pitṛyā verses with āhāva mantra specially recited with each verse or without repeating the āhāva mantra separately with each verse, for it is better not to finish Pitṛyajña quickly. He who separately recites the āhāva with each verse makes the pitṛyajña that is imperfect, complete and therefore one must recite specially employing the āhāva with each verse."¹¹²³ The conclusion is one should repeat each verse with āhāvā separately uttereḍ The performer should follow the brāhmaṇas up to the boundary (of the village). He says 'whatever blemish there may be in japa, tapas or śrāddha rite—may all that become free from blemish by the favour of brāhmaṇaṣ I do adora- tion to that Acyuta (Viṣṇu) by remembering whom &c. O best of brāhmaṇas! may this śrāddha, even if devoid of the rite or of 'faith, become perfect by your favour'. Then he concludes 'May Janārdana Vāsudeva who assumes the forms of father, grand-father and great-grand- father be pleased by this sacrifice, viz. the pratisāmvatsarika- śrāddha of the pitṛs This is a sacrifice to the maneṣ Tat sat. May it be dedicated to Brahma.' Then he repeats the verse 'Vasat te' (Rg. VII, 99 7) and then says 'adoration to Viṣṇu (Viṣṇave namah) thrice and sips water twice. The fruit of offering pindas is stated by Bṛhaspati and Vṛddha-Parāśara as follows: If the pitṛs are in the world of gods they are gratified by the food offered in fire, if they are in the world of pitṛs they are gratified by the dinner to brāhmaṇas and if in hell they are gratified by the balls offered on the grounḍ³⁸⁷

Comparing the above rather elaborate and exhaustive procedure with the procedure of pratisāmvatsarikaśrāddha as practised in Madras in these days only a few points of differences in detail emerge. In the Madras procedure the numerous mantras as set out above (p. 448) do not occur nor does the Tai. Ā. passage occur therein, but the verses in praise of the dust of brāhmaṇa's feet do occur. Most of the mantras both Vedic and Paurāṇic are the same. The blessings (āśīr- vādas) in the Madras manual are more elaborate and include even the performer's cattle in the blessing of health and long life. In the Madras manual several mantras are set out as 'annasūkta' mantras in the procedure itself. The Madras paddhati adds at the end the well known verse 'kāyena vācā manasendriyairvā'.

The procedure for Yajurvedins of the Mādhyandina Śākhā in Bengal as set out by Raghunandana in his Yajurvedī-śrā- ddhatattva is entirely based on the 2nd and 3rd kaṇḍikās of the Śrāddha-sūtra of Kātyāyana. The Pārvaṇaśrāddha-prayoga in Halāyudha's Brāhmaṇasarvasva closely follows Kātyāyana and I am assured by a careful student of Dharmaśāstra that the pro- cedure of pārvaṇaśrāddha followed by Mādhyandinas at Bhat- para in Western Bengal is in strict conformity with the proce- dure laid down by Raghunandana. The Śrāddhasūtra of Kātyāyana is translated here with some explanations and additions made by Halāyudha and Raghunandana and the whole text, being not very extensive, is given in the note below³⁸⁸. "The pārvana-śrāddha is preceded by the rite for Viśvedevaṣ The procedure follows that of Piṇḍapitṛyajña³⁸⁸. In the rites for the pitṛs double-folded darbhas are to be used (while in Vaiśvadevika rite straight darbhas are used). Whenever any thing is to be gifted, the performer (in all daiva as well as pitṛya rites) wears a pavitra and makes the gift sitting. (When questions are to be asked) the performer puts the question to the most eminent in the row of diners (to the best daiva brāhmaṇa in daiva rites and to the best pitṛya brāhmaṇa in pitṛya rites) or he may put the question to all (and the reply is given by one or by all) Spreading darbhas on the seats (he makes the brāhmaṇas occupy them), he puts the question 'shall I invoke the Viśvedevas (to the daiva brāhmaṇas)'. Being permitted (by the daiva brāhmaṇas) in the words 'do invoke', he invokes the Viśvedevas with the mantra ¹¹²⁵ 'Viśve devāsa āgata' (Vāj. S. 7. 34 'Ye All Gods, come, listen to this my call and sit down on this darbha grass'). Then he scatters yavas (in front of the brāhmaṇas), mutters a mantra 'Viśvedevāh śruṇutemam' (Vāj. S. 33. 53, 'Ye All Gods, hear this call of mine'). After this japa he asks (the pitṛya brāhmaṇas) ‘I shall invoke the pitṛs’. When permitted (by the pitṛya brāhmaṇas) in the words 'do invoke', he invokes them with the mantra 'usantas tvā' (Vāj. S. 19. 70, ‘O Agni! We longing for our fathers place you down’ &c.). Then he scatters (sesamum grains in front of the pitrya brāhmaṇas) and mutters the mantra 'ā yantu naḥ pitaraḥ' (Vāj. S. 19. 58, 'May the soma-loving pitṛs come to us' &c.). Then he pours water in each of the cups made of a sacrificial tree (such as palāśa, udumbara &c.), in which a pavitra is dipped with the mantra 'śan no devīr' (Vāj. S. 36. 12, 'May the divine waters be for our happiness' &c.). (He puts yavas in the vessel for daiva rite). He puts in each of the cups sesamum grains with the mantra 'Thou art Tila ³⁹³ &c.'. He offers on the hands of each of the brāhmaṇas (first daiva and then pitrya) that wear a pavitra water in a vessel made of gold, silver, copper, rhinocéros horn or precious stone or in whatever vessels may be available or in vessels made of bunches of leaves with the mantra 'yā divyā ³⁹⁴ āpaḥ &c.'. The water is offered in the words 'O father' N. N. by name, this is arghya for you' (and then to other ancestors). Having mixed together in the first vessel (meant for the father) the drops of water remaining in the other vessels ³⁹⁵ for other ancestors, he puts down on the ground the first vessel face downwards with the words 'thou art a place for the pitṛs'. Then (at this stage) gandha ³⁹⁶ (sandalwood paste), flowers, Incense, lamp and garment are offered (to the brāhmaṇas repre-senting the ancestors).

Having taken out in another vessel some food from out of the food already cooked for śrāddha and having anointed it with ghee he (the performer) asks 'I shall perform agnau-karaṇa'. Being permitted by the brāhmaṇas in the words 'do so', he offers into (gṛhya) fire oblations ³⁹⁷ as in Piṇḍa- IV I pitryajña, having served (into all the plates for all the brāh- manas invited) the food that remains after being offered in fire, he touches with his hands (above and below each plate) and repeats the mantra ‘The earth is thy vessel &c.’ (notes ²⁵⁶, ³⁶⁹). (He keeps some food aside for making pindas later on). Then (having served the food in the plates) he plunges the thumb of the brāhmaṇas in the food with a rk (Rg. I. 22. 17, ‘idam Visnur vicakrame’) addressed to Viṣṇu or with a Yajus so addressed (‘Visno kavyamidam raksasva’). Then he scat- ters about (yavas before daiva brāhmaṇas silently and) sesa- mum grains with the mantra ‘apahatā asurā raksānsi vedi- sadah’ (Vāj. S. 2. 29). Then he should serve hot food very much liked (by diners or by the departed) or he may serve such food as he can afforḍ While the brāhmaṇas are engaged in eating (the dinner) he should perform japa of the follow- ing ³⁹⁸, viz. the sacred Gāyatrī once or thrice preceded by om and the vyāhrtis, the verses called Rāksoghnī (note ³⁷³), mantras addressed to the pitrs (Rg. X. 15. 1–13 beginning with ‘udiratām-avara ut parāsah’), Purusasūkta (Rg. X. 90. 1–16), Apratiratha hymn (Rg. X. 103. 1–13) beginning with ‘āśuh śiśānah’) and other holy textṣ Then finding that the brāh- manas are satiated with food, he should scatter some food in front of the dining brāhmaṇas, he should give to each brāh- mana water once (for apośana at the end of dinner). Then he should mutter as before the Gāyatrī, the (three) Madhumati verses (Rg. I. 90 6-8) and the word ‘madhu’ (thrice). Then he asks ‘are you satiated’. Being permitted by them in the words ‘we are satiated’, he makes them give their consent as to the rest of the food, collects together all food in one vessel ( in order to make pindas from it); he offers (two sets of three pindas, three for paternal ancestors and three for maternal ancestors) on darbhas near the spot where ³⁹⁹ the brāhmaṇas dined and left uneaten food in plates and pours water over the pindas for ablution ⁴⁰⁰ Some authors say that pindas are to be offered after the brāhmaṇas perform ācamana at the end of the dinner. After they perform ācamana he gives to the brāh- manas water, flowers, akṣatas and ahṣayyodaka ⁴⁰¹. Then he prays for the following blessingṣ He prays 'may the pitṛs be not terrible (i. e. be kind) to us'. The brāhmaṇas reply 'may they be so'. He prays 'May our family prosper'. They reply 'may it be so'. He prays 'May donors increase in our family'. They reply 'let it be so'. He prays 'May Vedas and our progeny prosper'. The reply is 'May they do so'. He says 'May faith not depart from me'; they say 'May it not depart'. He says 'May we possess many things that we can donate'. They reply 'so be it'. After receiving these blessings he spreads kuśas called svadhāvācaṇīya ⁴⁰¹ together with pavitras (on the ground near the pindas or, on the pindas themselves according to Devayājñika and others); he asks (all the brāh- manas or the most eminent one) 'shall I request you to utter the word svadhā'. Being permitted by them in the words 'May svadhā be recited' he prays 'May there be svadhā to the pitṛs, to the grandfathers, to the great-grand-fathers, to the maternal grandfather, maternal great-grandfather and maternal great- great-grandfather'. When the brāhmaṇas reply 'May there be svadhā' he sprinkles water over the svadhāvācaṇīya darbhas with the mantra 'ūrjam vahantīr' (Vāj. S. II. 34). Then he turns the vessel top upwards (which had been placed with top downwards) and he should give to the brāhmaṇas dakṣiṇā according to his ability. He should make the daiva brāhmaṇas repeat 'May all the gods be pleased'. He should then dismiss the brāhmaṇas with the mantra 'Vaje vāje' (Vāj. S. 9. 18), he should follow the brāhmaṇas (up to the village boundary) with the mantra 'ā mā vājasya' (Vāj. S. 9. 19), circumambulate them and then enter his own house. It is to be noted that in the Bengal Manual of Pārvanā- śrāddha based on the Brāhmaṇasarvasva of Halāyudha and also on Raghunandana’s Yajurvedi-śrāddhatattva the following details are added after the pindas are placed on the darbhas and before the brāhmaṇaṣ He turns towards the north and says ‘O pitṛs, regale yourselves here and come like bulls each to his portioṇ’ Then he turns round to his former position and says ‘the pitṛs regaled themselves and came like bulls each to his own share.’ Then he loosens ⁴⁰² the side of his dhoti which has been tucked up and then folds up his hands (i. e. offers six namaskāras ) with the mantra ⁴⁰³ ‘Namo vah pitāro rasāya’ (Vaj. S. II. 32). He smells ⁴⁰⁴ the pindas and gives the middle one to his wife, if she desires a son, with the mantra ‘ādhatta’ (Vaj. S II. 33).

From considerations of space the procedure of pārvanā śrāddha among Hiraṇyakeśins in modern times is passed over here. Moreover, it closely resembles the procedure in Āśv. Gṛ. the principal difference being that some of the mantras are different. The Saṁskāraratnamālā of Gopinātha deals with this from p. 985 onwards But one noticeable feature of this last work is that of making hair-splitting distinctionṣ On p. 985 it refers to two śrāddhas (other than pinda-pitṛ- yajña) to be performed on amāvāsyā, viz. māsi-śrāddha and māśika-śrāddha, the first being described by the Dharmasūtra of Hiraṇyakeśin and the second by the Gṛhyasūtra. Gopinātha further says that māśikaśrāddha is the model of the other śrāddhas described in the Gṛhyasūtra and māśirśrāddha is the model of śrāddhas described in the Dharmaśāstras, such as Mahālayāśrāddha or Saṁvatsarika-śrāddha, that Darśaśrāddha itself is māsi-śrāddha (p. 988) and that māśika-śrāddha may be performed on each darśa or on any one darśa day in a year and that māśi-śrāddha follows immediately after Piṇḍapitṛyajña as laid down by Manu (III. 122) and māśikāśrāddha may be performed after māsi-śrāddha. In modern times no one performs māśrāddha or māśika-śrāddha strictly in accordance with the ancient ruleṣ Śrāddha is supposed to be performed by feeding a brāhmaṇa and giving him a dakṣiṇā of a few annaṣ The Śrāddhatattva (Jīv., part 1 p. 254) provides, after quoting Matsya and Bhavisya, that, if a person is unable to perform a pārvanāśrāddha every month, he should perform one at least thrice a year when the sun is in the zodiacal signs of Kanyā, Kumbha and Vṛṣabha and that if he is unable to perform even thrice then he should perform at least once when the sun is in the sign of Kanyā.

The two meanings of sapinda given by the Mit. and the Dāyabhāga have already been explained at great length in H. of Dh. vol. II, pp. 452-458 and pp. 472-477. The Dāyabhāga propounded the theory that whoever conferred greater spiritual benefit on the deceased by the performance of śrāddhas and the offering of pindas was entitled to be preferred as an heir to the deceased's wealth. The Mit. said that heirship depended on blood relationship and the nearest in blood to the deceased was the preferential heir. But even under the Mit. whoever took the wealth of the deceased was bound to pay his debts (Yāj. II. 51) and to offer śrāddha and pinda to hiṃ This subject and the several propositions deduced from the texts have been dealt with in H. of Dh. vol. III, pp. 734-745.

One thing to be remembered is that in determining the preferential right regard is to be had to the capacity of a person and the efficacy of the pindas when offereḍ After a person takes the wealth of the deceased, there is no legal machinery to enforce his duty to offer pindas⁴⁰⁵. It was argued in Nalinakṣa v. Rajanī Kanto 35 C. W. N. 726 that, if an heir does not offer pindas or refuses to offer them to his ancestor, he was not entitled under Hindu Law to succeed to hiṃ This argument was repelled by the judges with the remark that there was no authority for such a proposition and that the right to inheritance is based under the Dāyabhāga not on offering pinda but on the capacity to offer it (p. 729). Vide Gooroo Govinda Saha v. Anand Lal 5 Beng. L. R. 15 (F. B.) and Digambar v. Motilal 9 Cal. 563 (F. B.) for the statement that the principle of spiritual benefit is the sole foundation of the theory of in- heritance propounded in the Dāyabhāga. But in certain later cases such as Akshāyachandra v. Hari Das 35 Cal. 721 it was rightly pointed out that spiritual benefit is not always the guiding principle under the Bengal school of law, that the principle of spiritual efficacy as the guiding principle fails in all classes of female relations such as the wife, the daughter and the mother whose rights are really based on special texts and that the reason for inheritance by a re-united coparcener was not spiritual benefit but was based on a quasi contract and affectioṇ

The question about how śrāddha was to be performed if one or more of the three paternal ancestors were alive engaged the thoughts of writers from very ancient timeṣ The Āśv. ⁴⁰⁶ Śr. S (II. 6. 16-23) first sets out the views of Gāṇagāri, Taulvali and Gautama and then refutes theṃ Gāṇagāri held that out of the three paternal ancestors piṇḍas should be offered to those that were dead and those that were alive should be honoured in person, since the śrāddha rite is meant for pleasing the ancestors; Taulvali opined that piṇḍas should be offered to all the three ancestors, whether living or dead, since in the rite of śrāddha they are only a secondary matter (a detail). Gautama thought that piṇḍas should be offered to dead ancestors, upto three from the father if the latter was living, from the grand- father if he was alive and from the great-grandfather if all the three be living. Āśv. replies; one cannot offer piṇḍas to three ancestors ⁴⁰⁷ beyond the father, grand-father or great- grandfather, since one has no adhikāra to do so; one cannot offer piṇḍas to an ancestor after whom there is an ancestor (within three degrees) living. One may offer homa into fire to those that are alive. (If all three ancestors are alive) all the three piṇḍas must be cast into fire or he may not begin the rite at all. The Kātyāyana śr. ⁴⁰⁸ sūtra provides that pindas are offered only to deceased ancestors; therefore if a person's father be alive or if there is a deceased ancestor between whom and the performer there is an ancestor that is alive, then one whose father is alive can only perform homa (into fire, but no pindaḍāna) or he should not undertake at all (the rite of pinda-pitṛyajña or pārvaṇaśrāddha); that Jātukarṇya prescribes that no pindaḍāna is possible when a living ancestor (father) intervenes between the performer and a deceased ancestor, since a śruti text says 'one does not offer pindas to ancestors that are beyond a living ancestor.' Manu (III. 220-222) deals with this question as follows: If the performer's father be alive he should offer pindas to three ancestors beginning from the paternal grand-father or he may request the father to dinner as he would do to a stranger brāhmaṇa and offer pindas to the deceased grand-father and great-grand-father. If the father be dead and the grand-father be alive, he may offer a pinda only to the father and the great-grand-father (i. e. only two pindas) or the grand-father who is alive may be invited to dinner as if he were the stranger brāhmaṇa invited to represent a deceased grand-father or if permitted by the grand-father who is alive he may offer pindas to father, great-grand-father and great-great-grand-father. The Viṣṇudharmaśāstra (chap. 75) has several rules of a similar character. Some of the Purāṇas such as Skanda VI 225.24-25, Agni 117.58-59 deal with this matter. Gobhilasmṛti (II 93 ff) has a long passage on this question, one verse of which is quoted below.⁴⁰⁹ Many of the commentaries and digests hold divergent views on this subject, viz. the Mit. on Yāj. I. 254, Kalpataru (śr. pp. 240 ff), Śr. K. K. pp. 552-556 and Nirṇayasindhu (III. pp. 499-503). It is impossible to reconcile all the viewṣ The Kalpataru (on śr. p. 240) states that there are three alternative courses for him whose father is alive, (1) he should pass over the father that is alive and offer pindas to those three ancestors to whom his father offers pindas; (Manu. III. 220, Viṣṇu Dh. S 75.1); (2) he should simply offer homa into fire as he would do to a stranger brāhmaṇa and (3) he should not engage in the rite of pinda-pitṛyajña or pārvaṇaśrāddha at all (Gobhila-smṛti II. 93). The Nirṇayasindhu says that there are numerous alternatives mentioned by different writers, that they are forbidden in the Kali age and that one view is that a man whose father is alive cannot engage in pārvanasrāddha and that the real conclusion is that śrāddha may be offered to those to whom the father (of the performer) who is living offers piṇḍaṣ It is clear that one whose father is living should have nothing to do with piṇḍadāna for deceased ancestorṣ Manu (in latter half of III. 220) allowed an alternative viz. one should feed one's father at a dinner (and honour him with the details of worship such as gandha, dhūpa, dīpa) and offer piṇḍas to the deceased grandfather and great-grandfather. When any one or two out of the three paternal ancestors are alive and śrāddha is permitted to a descendant several alternatives become possible by permutation and combination, which are passed over here from considerations of space and utility. But the various views held by different writers as described above show clearly what a firm grip the theory of the supreme benefits to be derived from śrāddhas had on the minds not only of common people but of learned men, who, in spite of the fact that the father was alive and was there to offer piṇḍas to his three ancestors, allowed even the son (whose father was living) to offer piṇḍas to the same three ancestorṣ The Viṣṇu Dh. S. extends the procedure about ‘jīvatpitṛka’ to one's mother's paternal ancestors (changing the mantra where necessary).⁴⁰⁹ Similar rules apply where the performer's mother is alive (Agnipurāṇa 117.60 ‘evaṁ mātṛādikasyāpi tathā mātāmahādike’).

It is provided by Gobhilasmṛti (III. 157) that a śruti injunction should be made effective by means of anukalpa (of some substituted procedure) if the primary procedure cannot be carried out.⁴¹⁰ If a person cannot secure several brāhmaṇas but can secure only one, he should perform Pārvaṇa-śrāddha in which six piṇḍas are to be offered with a single brāhmaṇa, provided he is paṅkti-pāvana⁴¹¹ (sanctifier of a row of diners) and in such a case, naivedya should be offered in place of the dinner to the daiva brāhmaṇas and the food should be thrown into fire; so says Śaṅkha 14.10. If even a single brāhmaṇa cannot be had for a pūrvaśrāddha, then one should prepare with kuśas the effigy of brāhmaṇa students (bath) and the performer should himself ask the questions and give the answers required in pārvaṇaśrāddha.⁴¹²

When one cannot secure a brāhmaṇa nor materials, or when one is on a journey, or on the birth of a son, or when one’s wife is in her monthly illness, one may perform āmaśrāddha (śrāddha with uncooked grains).⁴¹³ This is stated by the Skandapurāṇa VII. 1. 206. 52. Kātyāyana and Saurapurāṇa 19.32 have similar verses ‘a twice-born person should perform āmaśrāddha when he is on a journey or is in distress, or if he has no fire for cooking and those who are weak may always perform it.’ The Madanapārijāta (p. 483) states that one who has no adhikāra for pārvaṇaśrāddha can alone offer āmaśrāddha. Harīta says that when there is an obstacle in performing a śrāddha, āmaśrāddha is prescribed except in the case of māsika and sāṁvatsarika śrāddhaṣ⁴¹⁴ Āmaśrāddha is always pres- cribed for śūdraṣ It was further provided that the grains offered in śrāddha should be utilized by the brāhmaṇas for eating the cooked food for themselves and were to be applied for no other purpose (Hemādri, Śr. p. 1527). Vyāsa provides⁴¹⁵ that the quantity of grains should be at least two or three or four times as much as the grains required for offering cooked fooḍ Some words employed in the various items such as āvāhana¹

Amāśrāddha and Hemāśrāddha

svadhākāra and dismissal of the brāhmaṇas had to be changed e. g in āvāhana the verse employed is ' uśantastvā ' ( Vāj. S. 19 70) which ends with the words 'havise attave' (which means 'in order to eat the havis') the words 'havise svikartave' would have to be substituteḍ

Āmaśrāddha is to be performed in the first part of the day, ekoddista in the noon, the pārvanāśrāddha in the afternoon and vrddhiśrāddha in the first part of the day (divided into five ).¹

If even uncooked food grains cannot be offered the per- former should perform hemaśrāddha ( śrāddha with money ) When the sun passes from one sign of the zodiac into another, in default of food and brāhmaṇas, on a journey, on the birth of a son, in an eclipse, in the case of women and śūdras hema- śrāddha is allowed or when one's wife is in her monthly illnesṣ In āmaśrāddha twice the quantity of grains required in offering cooked food and in hemaśrāddha four times ( the price of the grains required for cooked food) has to be offereḍ If no money can be had the digests prescribe several modes which have already been set out above (vide p 425, ṇ 955 ).